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Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies

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A special issue of Animals (ISSN 2076-2615). This special issue belongs to the section "Veterinary Clinical Studies".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 March 2026 | Viewed by 7174

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Guangwen Yin

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Guest Editor

College of Animal Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
Interests: poultry cocidia; coccidian vaccines; poultry immunity; wildlife animals parasites

Dr. Sixin Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
Interests: coccidian vaccines; gut microbiota; poultry immunity

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Coccidian parasites are a group of protozoan parasites belonging to the subclass Coccidia within the phylum Apicomplexa. They primarily infect the intestinal tract of their hosts, which can include a wide range of animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and humans. They are strictly host-specific and are characterized by their monoxenous life cycle. After endogenous development, oocysts are excreted into the environment, where they mature into the infective stage. Due to their widespread distribution in populations of many different animal species, they are considered of great veterinary importance.

Young animals are primarily affected by high parasite burdens, and the replication of intracellular parasites results in pathology and the development of coccidiosis as a clinical disease. Coccidia infection can be detected by identifying oocysts in fecal samples and can be subsequently differentiated based on oocyst morphology. Prevention is based on reducing infection pressure through cleaning and disinfection measures, vaccination, and preventive drug treatment. Understanding the epidemiology of coccidian parasites is critical for developing effective control and prevention strategies. Research is ongoing to find new treatments, improve vaccines, and refine control measures to mitigate the impact of these parasites on both animal and human health. Enhanced surveillance, education, and best management practices are vital components in addressing the challenges posed by coccidian parasites.

This Special Issue aims to compile research and reviews on various aspects of coccidian parasites, including but not limited to the molecular epidemiology of coccidian parasites in different host species, new risk factors contributing to the spread of coccidian infections, host–parasite interactions and co-evolution, advances in diagnostic techniques for coccidian infections, gold-standard methods of controlling coccidian infections in animal husbandry, environmental management strategies to reduce the transmission of coccidian oocysts, novel therapeutic agents, and approaches to control and prevent coccidian infections.

I look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Guangwen Yin
Dr. Sixin Zhang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

coccidian
prevalence
epidemiology
risk Factors
prevention
control strategies
vaccination

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 2885 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parkia platycephala Pods Modulate Eimeria spp. Parasite Load and Enhance Productive Performance in Naturally Infected Lambs

by Thalia Caldas da Silva, Gabrielle de Melo Oliveira, Osmar Macêdo Fortaleza Neto, Maycon Rodrigo de Souza Diniz, Joana Kellany Gonçalves de Andrade, José Gracione do Nascimento Souza Filho, Janaína Marques do Nascimento, Sara Silva Reis, Michelle de Oliveira Maia Parente, Arlan Araújo Rodrigues, Anderson de Moura Zanine, Henrique Nunes Parente and Ivo Alexandre Leme da Cunha

Animals 2025, 15(19), 2896; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15192896 - 3 Oct 2025

Viewed by 347

Abstract

Coccidiosis represents a major constraint to sheep productivity worldwide, with increasing concerns regarding anticoccidial resistance and growing interest in reducing dependency on conventional synthetic anticoccidials. This investigation evaluated the anticoccidial properties of faveira pods (Parkia platycephala pod—PpP) and their influence on productive performance in naturally infected lambs. Eighteen uncastrated Dorper × Santa Inês crossbred males (20.0 ± 2.5 kg, 5 months) were randomly allocated to three groups: G1 (0% PpP; n = 6), G2 (100% PpP replacing roughage, 30.0% of total diet; n = 6), and the control group (0% PpP plus 20 mg/kg toltrazuril; n = 5). Parasitological assessments, productive performance, and behavioral parameters were monitored over 45 days using oocyst counts, morphometric analysis, digestibility trials, and biometric measurements. Nine Eimeria species were identified, with E. crandallis, E. parva, and E. bakuensis representing 53.5% of total oocyst shedding. Group G2 demonstrated a numerical 8.5% reduction in parasite load compared to G1 (p = 0.42), while toltrazuril achieved 36.6% efficacy (p < 0.05). Species-specific effects were significant for E. crandallis, E. parva, and E. ovinoidalis (p < 0.01). A robust correlation emerged between parasite load and water consumption (r = 0.652, p = 0.0045), establishing a novel behavioral biomarker for coccidiosis monitoring. Environmental oocyst elimination decreased by 43.4% in the P. platycephala group. These findings demonstrate that PpPs possess moderate anticoccidial properties, offering a sustainable complementary strategy for integrated coccidiosis management while contributing to environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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15 pages, 2025 KB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Detection and Differentiation of Four Eimeria Species in Chickens (E. tenella, E. maxima, E. necatrix, and E. acervulina) Using a Multiplex TaqMan-MGB qPCR Assay

by Lin Lin, Xiao-Li Chen, Sheng-Hui Wu, Xi Cai, Bin Jiang, Wei You and Min Zheng

Animals 2025, 15(19), 2792; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15192792 - 25 Sep 2025

Viewed by 309

Abstract

Chicken coccidiosis is a major parasitic disease in poultry that causes substantial economic losses worldwide. The accurate and simultaneous diagnosis of mixed infections with multiple Eimeria species remains challenging using conventional methods. In this study, we developed a multiplex TaqMan-MGB qPCR assay targeting the ITS1 region for simultaneous detection and quantification of four major pathogenic species: E. acervulina, E. necatrix, E. maxima, and E. tenella. The assay exhibited high specificity without cross-reactivity and achieved a sensitivity 100-fold greater than conventional PCR, with detection limits ranging from 10¹ to 10² copies/μL. Standard curves demonstrated strong linearity (R² ≥ 0.95) and amplification efficiency (95–113%). Repeatability was robust, with intra- and inter-assay CVs below 2%. Applied to 165 clinical samples collected from poultry farms in Fujian Province, China (2022–2024), the assay detected an overall Eimeria infection rate of 93.3%, higher than conventional PCR (89.7%). Epidemiological analysis revealed E. tenella (78.8%, [130/165]) and E. necatrix (78.8%, [130/165]) were dominant, while mixed infections were frequent (83.3%, [136/154]), including dual (45.5%, [70/154]), triple (31.2%, [48/154]), and quadruple (11.7%, [18/154]) infections. This multiplex TaqMan-MGB qPCR provides a rapid, sensitive, and quantitative tool for detecting multiple Eimeria species, greatly improving diagnostic efficiency and supporting clinical diagnosis, surveillance, and control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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17 pages, 3416 KB

Open AccessArticle

GRA86 Is a Novel Dense Granule Protein Important for Virulence and Bradyzoite Differentiation in Toxoplasma gondii

by Xiao-Nan Zheng, Jing Li, Xin-Sheng Lu, Hany M. Elsheikha and Xing-Quan Zhu

Animals 2025, 15(17), 2591; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15172591 - 3 Sep 2025

Viewed by 598

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is a globally prevalent parasite capable of establishing lifelong infections, which can have severe consequences in immunocompromised individuals and developing fetuses. GRAs are essential secretory effectors that facilitate nutrient acquisition, modulate host immune responses, and support intracellular survival. In this study, we characterized four putative GRAs (GRA85–88) that co-localize with GRA12 in both tachyzoite and bradyzoite stages. Using CRISPR-Cas9-mediated homologous recombination, we successfully generated knockout strains in both type I RH and type II Pru backgrounds. Phenotypic analysis revealed that GRA85, GRA87, and GRA88 were not individually required for parasite replication, invasion, or virulence. However, deletion of gra86 (PruΔgra86) resulted in a significant reduction in virulence and fewer brain cysts in chronically infected mice, although in vitro growth remained unaffected. Transcriptomic profiling of PruΔgra86 revealed downregulation of bradyzoite–related genes and upregulation of GRAs involved in host interaction. Additionally, in vitro differentiation assays showed impaired bradyzoite development in the absence of GRA86. These findings from murine models and in vitro phenotypic assays highlight GRA86 as a regulator of chronic infection and stage conversion, positioning it as an important player in T. gondii pathogenesis and a promising target for therapeutic intervention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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30 pages, 19363 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Analysis of Immune Response and Transcriptome Profiling Reveals the Molecular Basis Underlying Breed-Specific Responses to Eimeria tenella Infection in Chickens with Differing Susceptibility Levels

by Jianmei Li, Haiyu Shen, Ming Xu, Wei Han and Xinhong Dou

Animals 2025, 15(17), 2533; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15172533 - 28 Aug 2025

Viewed by 610

Abstract

Wenchang Chickens (WCCs) and Recessive White Feather Chickens (RWFCs) are two important broiler breeds in China, although their susceptibility to E. tenella has not been compared. This study explores these differences in susceptibility. The results showed that WCCs exhibited lower susceptibility, as evidenced by no mortality and significantly reduced oocyst production compared to RWFCs. Additionally, WCCs had higher levels of CD3⁺CD4⁺ T lymphocytes and lower levels of CD3⁺CD8α⁺ T lymphocytes, both before and after infection, compared to RWFCs. Notably, serum IgA and IgG antibody levels in WCCs were significantly higher than those in RWFCs. RNA−seq analysis at 2, 4, and 7 days post-infection (dpi) revealed a consistent upward trend in gene expression in WCCs, while RWFCs exhibited a fluctuating pattern. Functional analysis indicated that the stable immune response, as annotated by the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in WCCs, along with distinct metabolic alterations, may contribute to their enhanced resistance. Several hub genes, including SLC7A11, CCL19, CD4, HSPA5, and HSP90AA1, were identified within gene interaction networks specific to each breed. These findings provide valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the differential susceptibility of WCCs and RWFCs, offering potential targets for new coccidiosis control strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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21 pages, 3132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Characterization and Protective Efficacy of a Novel Protein (EnSSB) Containing a Single-Stranded DNA-Binding Domain from Eimeria necatrix

by Yu Zhu, Dandan Liu, Lele Wang, Qianqian Feng, Nianyu Xue, Zhaofeng Hou, Jinjun Xu and Jianping Tao

Animals 2025, 15(17), 2482; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15172482 - 23 Aug 2025

Viewed by 480

Abstract

SSB proteins play essential roles in DNA replication, recombination, and repair in bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. This study investigates the transcript levels, identification, expression and purification, subcellular localization, and immune protective potential of the SSB-like proteins of Eimeria necatrix (EnSSB), exploring its role in the development of E. necatrix and its potential as a candidate antigen for a subunit vaccine against avian coccidiosis. The level of EnSSB gene transcription was highest in unsporulated oocysts (UO), followed by gametocytes (GAM) (p < 0.05). The gene consisted of an open reading frame of 1488 nucleotides encoding a protein of 495 amino acid residues with a predicted molecular weight of 53.31 kDa. EnSSB contained a SSB domain with a conserved OB (oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide binding) fold. The molecular mass of the native protein, as determined by Western blot analysis, was ~58 kDa in second-generation merozoites (MZ-2) and UO. In addition to the 58 kDa band, four other bands (~98 kDa, ~82 kDa, ~36 kDa and ~28 kDa) were detected in GAM. No bands were detected in MZ-3. Indirect immunofluorescence and immuno-electron microscopy localized EnSSB in the cytoplasm of macrogametocytes but not in wall-forming bodies and oocyst wall. Animal challenge experiments demonstrated that rEnSSB elicited robust IgY responses, increased splenic T lymphocytes and body weight gain, reduced intestinal lesion scores and oocyst shedding, and presented anticoccidial index (ACI) more than 160. These findings not only offer a foundation for understanding the role of EnSSB protein in regulating the development of E. necatrix, but also present a potential protective antigen of E. necatrix for the development of a subunit vaccine against avian coccidiosis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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14 pages, 1980 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Synergistic Enhancement of Eimeria maxima Vaccine Efficacy Through EF-1α Antigen and Chicken XCL1 Chemokine Adjuvant Combination

by Rong Chen, Xiao-Feng Lin, Hong-Yan Wu, Li-Na Li, Lei Wang, Deng-Feng Wang, Hai-Yan Wu, Pan-Pan Guo, Muhammad Mohsin and Guang-Wen Yin

Animals 2025, 15(16), 2330; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15162330 - 8 Aug 2025

Viewed by 603

Abstract

Coccidiosis is a major parasitic disease that suppresses poultry productivity and causes significant global economic losses. Currently, controlling Eimeria parasites relies primarily on the use of anticoccidial drugs or live vaccines. However, these conventional control strategies face the dual constraints of escalating drug resistance and unsustainable economic expenditures. In this study, the efficacy of a chimeric subunit vaccine comprising Eimeria maxima Elongation Factor-1α (EmEF1α) and chicken chemokine Ligand-1 (ChXCL1) was assessed for protection against experimental Eimeria maxima infection. The synthetic gene fragment ChXCL1-EmEF1α was ligated to the pET28a vector and expressed in vitro. Western blot analysis confirmed the successful expression of the recombinant ChXCL1-EmEF1α protein. Chickens immunized with the ChXCL1-EmEF1α exhibited a significantly stronger IgY response and higher secretion of IL-2 and IL-17 compared to those vaccinated with recombinant ChXCL1 alone or challenged solely with E. maxima. Furthermore, the ChXCL1-EmEF1α group demonstrated enhanced anticoccidial effects, including reduced intestinal lesions, higher body weight gain, and lower oocyst shedding compared to control groups. Following E. maxima challenge, the EmEF1α and ChXCL1-EmEF1α groups demonstrated robust protective efficacy, achieving high ACI values of 182 and 178, respectively. In contrast, the ChXCL1 and UC groups exhibited significantly lower ACI values (150 and 149, respectively), indicating minimal protection. This improvement was also reflected in the immune response, with significantly elevated levels of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells in the ChXCL1-EmEF1α-treated chickens. Moreover, ChXCL1 acts as an effective adjuvant when fused with EmEF1α, enhancing the vaccine’s anticoccidial efficacy. These results suggest that the ChXCL1-EmEF1α chimeric immunogen is a promising candidate for developing subunit vaccines against E. maxima infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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12 pages, 366 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Molecular Epidemiological Survey of Cryptosporidium in Ochotona curzoniae and Bos grunniens of Zoige County, Sichuan Province

by Tian-Cai Tang, Ri-Hong Jike, Liang-Quan Zhu, Chao-Xi Chen and Li-Li Hao

Animals 2025, 15(14), 2140; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15142140 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 497

Abstract

In order to investigate the infection status of Cryptosporidium in O. curzoniae and B. grunniens in Zoige County, Sichuan Province, fecal samples from B. grunniens and gastrointestinal contents from captured O. curzoniae were collected between March and December 2023 from five townships (Dazhasi, Axi, Hongxing, Tangke, and Maixi). Genomic DNA was extracted, and nested PCR targeting the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium was performed. PCR-positive products were sequenced, trimmed, aligned, and subjected to phylogenetic analysis to determine species and genotypes. A total of 242 samples were obtained, of which 20 were Cryptosporidium SSU rRNA-positive, yielding an overall detection rate of 8.3% (20/242). The detection rates of O. curzoniae and B. grunniens were 7.0% (8/114) and 9.4% (12/128), respectively. Among the five sampling sites, Maixi town exhibited the highest detection rate (32.4%, 11/44), followed by Hongxing town (15.2%, 7/46) and Tangke town (4.6%, 2/44). Phylogenetic analysis detected an unidentified Cryptosporidium sp. in O. curzoniae, while C. bovis (n = 10) and C. ryanae (n = 2) were detected in B. grunniens. These findings demonstrate that Cryptosporidium infections are present in both O. curzoniae and B. grunniens in Zoige County, with notable differences in infection rates and species composition. Continued surveillance of Cryptosporidium in local livestock and wildlife is warranted to provide critical data for regional public health management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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18 pages, 2836 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Characterization of the Antigenic and Immunogenic Properties of the Gametocyte Antigen 56 from Eimeria necatrix

by Feiyan Wang, Liqin Cao, Lele Wang, Jinjun Xu, Jianping Tao and Dandan Liu

Animals 2025, 15(12), 1750; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15121750 - 13 Jun 2025

Viewed by 609

Abstract

Coccidiosis, caused by Eimeria spp., significantly reduces poultry productivity and causes major economic losses. Traditional control methods are limited by drug resistance and high production costs. Recent genomic and bioinformatic advances have enabled the identification of novel antigens, making recombinant subunit vaccines a promising next-generation strategy by eliciting robust cellular and humoral immune responses. This study investigates the E. necatrix gametocyte protein 56 (EnGAM56) as a potential candidate for recombinant subunit vaccines. The full-length E. necatrix gametocyte gam56 gene (Engam56-F) was amplified, expressed in vitro, and characterized via SDS-PAGE and Western blot. Immunofluorescence assays revealed that EnGAM56-F is specifically localized in gametocytes and unsporulated oocysts. Chickens immunized with recombinant proteins (rEnGAM56-F and rEnGAM56-T) were evaluated for immunoprotection against E. necatrix infection through lesion scores, weight gain, oocyst production, anticoccidial index (ACI), and antibody and cytokine levels. The synergistic effects were evaluated by employing various combinations of recombinant proteins, including rEtGAM22, rEtGAM56-T, and rEtGAM59. Results showed that EnGAM56-F encodes a 468-amino acid protein with distinct tyrosine-serine-rich and proline-methionine-rich regions. rEnGAM56-F was specifically recognized by both anti-6 × His tag antibodies and convalescent serum from chickens infected with E. necatrix. Both rEnGAM56-F and rEnGAM56-T provided immune protection, with rEnGAM56-T showing superior efficacy. The combination of rEnGAM (22 + 59 + 56-T) yielded the strongest immune response, followed by rEnGAM (22 + 56-T). These findings highlight the potential of EnGAM56 as a candidate for recombinant subunit anticoccidial vaccines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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10 pages, 574 KB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Prevalence and Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in Sheep Tissues Intended for Human Consumption in Shanxi Province, North China

by Xin-Sheng Lu, Jing Li, Chen Wang, Lu Wang, Xiao-Jing Wu, Xi-Long Yi, Ze-Xuan Wu, Wen-Bin Zheng and Xing-Quan Zhu

Animals 2025, 15(12), 1685; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15121685 - 6 Jun 2025

Viewed by 776

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most widely distributed intracellular parasites worldwide, which can infect humans and a wide range of warm-blooded animals including sheep, with felines serving as its definitive host. T. gondii infection in sheep can lead to premature births, abortions and stillbirths, causing significant economic losses to the sheep industry. Sheep farming has become a key pillar of the agricultural economy in Shanxi Province, North China, but little is known about T. gondii infection in sheep in this province. In the present study, a total of 755 sheep tissue samples (682 muscle tissue samples and 73 lymphatic tissue samples) were collected from different markets in 10 different cities of Shanxi Province. The genomic DNA of all samples was extracted and the B1 gene of T. gondii was amplified by PCR. The B1 gene-positive samples were genotyped at 12 genetic markers employing the multilocus nested PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (Mn-PCR-RFLP). The molecular prevalence of T. gondii infection in sheep tissues in Shanxi Province was 20.5% (155/755). The T. gondii genotype ToxoDB#9 was identified in one positive T. gondii sample, with complete genotyping at all 12 genetic markers based on Mn-PCR-RFLP. This is the first report of molecular prevalence and genotype of T. gondii infection in sheep in Shanxi Province. These results reveal the widespread distribution of T. gondii in sheep in Shanxi, which is of significant public health importance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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12 pages, 2896 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

AP2X-8 Is Important for Tachyzoite Growth and Bradyzoite Differentiation of Toxoplasma gondii

by Li-Xiu Sun, Meng Wang, Hany M. Elsheikha, Shi-Chen Xie, Bao-Quan Fu, Xing-Quan Zhu and Guo-Hua Liu

Animals 2025, 15(9), 1349; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15091349 - 7 May 2025

Viewed by 1356

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii is a protozoan parasite capable of establishing chronic infections, with potential reactivation in immunocompromised individuals. However, the molecular mechanisms governing tachyzoite-to-bradyzoite differentiation remain incompletely understood. Previous studies have identified AP2 transcription factors as key regulators of this developmental switch. In this study, we investigated the role of the AP2 factor AP2X-8. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that AP2X-8 is constitutively expressed in the nucleus of both tachyzoite and bradyzoite stages. Using CRISPR-Cas9-mediated homologous recombination, we successfully generated an ap2X-8 knockout strain. Phenotypic assays including plaque formation, invasion, replication, and egress, and bradyzoite differentiation assays, were then performed to assess the impact of ap2X-8 deletion. Our analyses showed that the loss of ap2X-8 significantly impaired plaque formation and intracellular replication, while invasion and egress were unaffected. Furthermore, ap2X-8 knockout enhanced bradyzoite differentiation in vitro. Despite these changes, deletion of ap2X-8 did not alter parasite virulence in a mouse infection model. These findings demonstrate that AP2X-8 is an important regulator of T. gondii tachyzoite growth and bradyzoite differentiation, offering new insights into the parasite’s developmental regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coccidian Parasites: Epidemiology, Control and Prevention Strategies)

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