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Volume 10
Issue 4
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J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol., Volume 10, Issue 4 (December 2025) – 121 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Knee health is a central determinant of mobility and functional independence across the healthspan. While knee pathologies pose global challenges, emerging evidence reveals how injury mechanisms and personal factors converge to disrupt biomechanics and reduce mobility. In this narrative review, we introduce the Integrated Knee Health–Mobility Model to conceptualize knee health as a dynamic system governed by four interconnected domains: structural integrity, neuromuscular function, biomechanical adaptations, and functional mobility. We briefly examine modifying factors, such as age, sex, obesity, limb asymmetry, and genetics, not as barriers but as variables that shape mobility outcomes. Together, these insights underscore the need for targeted interventions to preserve knee health and mitigate long-term decline. View this paper
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20 pages, 665 KB  
Review
Effects of Endurance and Resistance Training on Cardiovascular Outcomes and Quality of Life in Patients with Heart Failure with Reduced Ejection Fraction: A Structured Narrative Review
by Michael Stiefel, Jamie O’Driscoll, Hadassa Brito da Silva, Tristan Ramcharan and Michael Papadakis
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040483 - 18 Dec 2025
Viewed by 48
Abstract
Background: Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) markedly impairs quality of life (QoL) and life expectancy. The main therapeutic goals are to reduce mortality, improve functional capacity, and enhance QoL. Exercise training is an evidence-based, non-pharmacological component of standard care that improves [...] Read more.
Background: Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) markedly impairs quality of life (QoL) and life expectancy. The main therapeutic goals are to reduce mortality, improve functional capacity, and enhance QoL. Exercise training is an evidence-based, non-pharmacological component of standard care that improves functional capacity and clinical outcomes in HFrEF. This review examines the effects of endurance and resistance training on peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), ventilatory efficiency (VE/VCO2 slope), health-related QoL, and cardiovascular outcomes in patients with HFrEF. Methods: A structured narrative review was conducted using comprehensive searches of PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library for English-language studies published between January 2004 and October 2024. Eligible studies included adult HFrEF populations undergoing aerobic and/or resistance training with reported effects on VO2peak, ventilatory efficiency, QoL, or clinical outcomes. Given the heterogeneity of interventions, comparators, and outcome metrics, data were synthesized descriptively. Results: Across 18 studies (plus one sub-analysis) including 3401 patients, 17 trials assessed VO2peak and 16 reported significant improvements, with an average increase of approximately 2 mL·kg−1·min−1. Six studies assessed ventilatory efficiency, and five demonstrated reductions in VE/VCO2 slope averaging 4.4 units. Eleven studies analyzed QoL, and nine reported significant improvements corresponding to an ≈5-point decrease in the Minnesota Living with Heart Failure Questionnaire (MLHFQ). In the largest trial, exercise training was associated with modest but statistically significant reductions in all-cause mortality or hospitalization (HR 0.89) and cardiovascular mortality or heart-failure hospitalization (HR 0.85) after adjustment for baseline prognostic factors. Conclusions: Structured exercise training improves aerobic capacity, ventilatory efficiency, and QoL in patients with HFrEF, with supportive evidence for reduced morbidity and mortality. These findings underscore the value of structured exercise as a core component of modern HFrEF management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Exercise Training on Cardiovascular Risks Factors in Primary and Secondary Prevention)
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20 pages, 443 KB  
Article
Associations Between Nutritional Intake, Body Composition, Menstrual Health, and Performance in Elite Female Trail Runners
by Nil Piñol-Granadino, Marta Carrasco-Marginet, Silvia Puigarnau, Javier Espasa-Labrador, Álex Cebrián-Ponce, Fabrizio Gravina-Cognetti, Maria Darder-Terradas and Joan Solé-Fortó
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040482 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 71
Abstract
Background: This study examined nutritional intake, body composition, menstrual health, and performance in elite female trail runners. Methods: A cross-sectional multivariate analysis was conducted on 35 athletes (14 eumenorrheic, 21 amenorrheic/oligomenorrheic). Nutritional intake was assessed through 7-day and 24 h food [...] Read more.
Background: This study examined nutritional intake, body composition, menstrual health, and performance in elite female trail runners. Methods: A cross-sectional multivariate analysis was conducted on 35 athletes (14 eumenorrheic, 21 amenorrheic/oligomenorrheic). Nutritional intake was assessed through 7-day and 24 h food records; anthropometry followed ISAK standards; performance was evaluated via ITRA and UTMB rankings. Statistical analyses included t-tests, MANCOVA, regression models, and Random Forest, adjusting for body composition and covariates. Results: Although energy availability (EA) did not differ significantly between groups, 94.3% of athletes had clinically low EA (<30 kcal/kg FFM/day). Amenorrheic athletes consumed more simple carbohydrates (21.8 ± 5.7% vs. 17.2 ± 3.1%), protein (2.5 ± 0.6 vs. 1.7 ± 0.2 g/kg/day), fiber, and lipids, while eumenorrheic athletes consumed more complex carbohydrates (129.7 ± 27.0 vs. 82.5 ± 33.3 g/day) and most vitamins. Both groups had inadequate calcium and iron intake. Low EA was moderately associated with an ectomorphic somatotype (r = 0.418). Performance negatively correlated with simple carbohydrates (r = −0.624) and positively with complex carbohydrates, total energy, protein, polyunsaturated fats, and zinc (r = 0.300–0.580). No significant performance differences were found between menstrual status groups. Conclusions: Menstrual irregularities did not affect performance, but nutritional patterns strongly influenced both performance and energy availability. Personalized nutrition strategies are essential for optimizing performance and safeguarding health in elite female trail runners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Body Composition Assessment: Methods, Validity, and Applications)
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9 pages, 235 KB  
Article
Gait and Stability Analysis of People After Osteoporotic Spinal Fractures Treated with Minimally Invasive Surgery
by Szymon Kaczor, Michalina Blazkiewicz, Malgorzata Kowalska, Adam Hermanowicz, Ewa Matuszczak, Justyna Zielińska-Turek and Justyna Hermanowicz
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 481; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040481 - 17 Dec 2025
Viewed by 102
Abstract
Background: Osteoporotic vertebral fractures in the thoracic–lumbar spine are common in older adults and can lead to pain, kyphotic posture, impaired postural control, and altered gait. These changes increase the risk of falls and reduce functional mobility, highlighting the need for effective assessment [...] Read more.
Background: Osteoporotic vertebral fractures in the thoracic–lumbar spine are common in older adults and can lead to pain, kyphotic posture, impaired postural control, and altered gait. These changes increase the risk of falls and reduce functional mobility, highlighting the need for effective assessment and intervention strategies. Objectives: To analyze stability and gait in patients who sustained a thoracic–lumbar spinal fracture and underwent minimally invasive surgery. Methods: Seventeen patients participated in this study (women = 11, age 68.36 ± 6.15 years, body weight 68.18 ± 12.8 kg, height 161.45 ± 5.26 cm; men = 6, age 62.67 ± 4.41 years, body weight 78.5 ± 20.36 kg, height 176.67 ± 12.64 cm). All participants had undergone minimally invasive spinal surgery using percutaneous screws reinforced with bone cement 12 months prior. Each patient underwent two assessments: postural stability measurement and biomechanical gait analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistica software (StatSoft, PL), with significance set at p < 0.05. Results: In the stability test, seven participants could not complete the measurement due to falls (FRT = 6.45 ± 2.43), six performed within the normal range (FRT = 2.41 ± 0.9), and four were below the normal range for their age group (FRT = 2.22 ± 1.7). Patients exhibited slower walking speed, shorter stride length, and reduced hip extension during the stance phase (approximately 5° less) due to a forward-leaning posture and cautious gait. Foot placement was flat rather than heel-first, likely as a compensatory strategy to enhance safety. Conclusions: Patients after osteoporotic thoracic–lumbar vertebral fractures treated with minimally invasive surgery demonstrate shorter, wider, and slower steps, along with reduced postural stability, indicating a persistent risk of forward falls. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
14 pages, 665 KB  
Article
The Effect of a Single Session of Functional Electrical Muscle Stimulation During Walking in Patients with Hemiparesis After Stroke: A Pilot Pre–Post Study
by Dmitry Skvortsov, Danila Lobunko, Natalia Grebenkina and Galina Ivanova
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040480 - 16 Dec 2025
Viewed by 100
Abstract
Background: Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is widely used in post-stroke rehabilitation to restore motor activity and improve walking. However, the immediate effects of a single FES session on gait biomechanics and muscle activity remain insufficiently studied. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the [...] Read more.
Background: Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is widely used in post-stroke rehabilitation to restore motor activity and improve walking. However, the immediate effects of a single FES session on gait biomechanics and muscle activity remain insufficiently studied. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the direct neuromotor effects of a single multichannel FES session during walking in patients with post-stroke hemiparesis. Methods: Eight patients with hemiparesis in the early or late recovery period after ischemic stroke underwent gait biomechanics and electromyography (EMG) assessment before and immediately after a single 30 min FES session. FES was applied to the tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, quadriceps femoris, and hamstring muscles of the paretic limb during walking, synchronized with gait phases. Spatial-temporal, kinematic, and EMG parameters were recorded using an inertial system. Pre- and post-intervention data were compared using paired tests (a paired t-test or the Wilcoxon signed rank test, p < 0.05), while the standardized effect sizes (Cohen’s d) were calculated for all pre-post comparisons. Results: A significant decrease was observed in the single support phase of the paretic limb after FES (p < 0.05). Knee joint movement amplitude increased significantly in the nonparetic limb. Surface EMG amplitudes decreased in the tibialis anterior of the nonparetic limb and in the hamstring and gastrocnemius of the paretic limb (p < 0.05). No significant changes were detected in overall gait speed, rhythm, or phases of muscle activity peaks. Conclusions: A single session of multichannel FES induces neuromotor changes reflected by redistribution of muscle activity and compensatory adjustments in gait biomechanics without immediate improvement in global kinematic parameters. The direct biomechanical changes in the gait function can be interpreted as evidence of the onset of fatigue. The procedure demonstrated good tolerability and safety, confirming its feasibility for early post-stroke rehabilitation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
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13 pages, 534 KB  
Review
Acromiohumeral Distance as a Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarker for Shoulder Disorders: A Systematic Review—Acromiohumeral Distance and Shoulder Disorders
by Luis Alfonso Arráez-Aybar, Carlos Miquel García-de-Pereda-Notario, Luis Palomeque-Del-Cerro and Juan José Montoya-Miñano
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040478 - 15 Dec 2025
Viewed by 158
Abstract
Objectives: The acromiohumeral distance (AHD) is widely used to evaluate subacromial pathology, particularly rotator cuff–related disorders. However, substantial heterogeneity exists across studies in imaging protocols, measurement definitions, and diagnostic thresholds. This systematic review aimed to synthesize current evidence on AHD measurement methods, assess [...] Read more.
Objectives: The acromiohumeral distance (AHD) is widely used to evaluate subacromial pathology, particularly rotator cuff–related disorders. However, substantial heterogeneity exists across studies in imaging protocols, measurement definitions, and diagnostic thresholds. This systematic review aimed to synthesize current evidence on AHD measurement methods, assess reliability and diagnostic performance across imaging modalities, and examine the clinical relevance of AHD as both a structural and functional biomarker. Methods: A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, and SciELO (January 2006–May 2025) was conducted following PRISMA 2020. Eligible studies reported quantitative AHD measurements using ultrasound, MRI, or radiography in adults. Two reviewers independently conducted screening, extraction, and QUADAS-2 assessments. Due to heterogeneity, results were narratively synthesized. Results: Twenty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. Definitions of AHD and imaging procedures varied substantially. Ultrasound showed the most consistent intra- and inter-observer reliability, whereas MRI and radiography demonstrated greater protocol-dependent variability. Reduced AHD values were frequently associated with full-thickness rotator cuff tears, while larger values typically characterized asymptomatic individuals. Several studies also reported reductions in AHD during arm elevation, supporting its interpretation as a functional parameter influenced by scapular motion and neuromuscular control. Conclusions: AHD is a reliable and clinically informative measure when acquired using standardized protocols, with Ultrasound demonstrating the highest reproducibility. Its sensitivity to positional and dynamic factors supports its role as both a structural and functional biomarker. Further research should prioritize standardized imaging procedures, dynamic assessment methods, and evaluation of emerging technologies to improve the diagnostic and prognostic value of AHD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)
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20 pages, 842 KB  
Article
One Sport or Many? Comparing the Effects of Athletics and Multiactivity Training on Motor Competence in 6–10-Year-Olds—A Case Study
by Nataniel Lopes, Miguel Jacinto, Diogo Monteiro, Rui Matos and Sérgio J. Ibáñez
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040479 - 13 Dec 2025
Viewed by 182
Abstract
Background: Motor competence (MC) is defined as the ability to perform a wide range of motor skills with proficiency and control. The present quasi-experimental study design examines the impact of two structured intervention programs on MC in children who practiced athletics at [...] Read more.
Background: Motor competence (MC) is defined as the ability to perform a wide range of motor skills with proficiency and control. The present quasi-experimental study design examines the impact of two structured intervention programs on MC in children who practiced athletics at the same club, aged 6 to 10 years, implemented over 12 weeks. Methods: The sample consisted of 64 children, assigned to two intervention groups: Intervention Group A (IG_A) composed of 15 male and 17 female children (9.57 ± 0.86 years) and Intervention Group B (IG_B), of 14 male and 18 female children (9.08 ± 1.33 years). IG_A received athletics-based training exclusively, three times per week, while IG_B undertook two weekly athletics sessions and one complementary activity session, such as handball, gymnastics, swimming, and motor games. MC was assessed using the modified Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK3+). The KTK3+ consists of three original KTK tasks, [Backward Balance (BB), Sideways Moving (MS), and Jumping Sideways (JS)] and an additional Eye–Hand Coordination (EHC) task. For statistical analysis, ANOVA repeated measures 2 × 2 was used. Results: In relation to JS, the performance on this test did not change with the intervention programs in either of the two groups. For BB and MS, both groups improved their performances in a similar way through the program implementation. Differently, for EHC, results showed that only IG_B improved its performance significantly (p < 0.001) with the program’s intervention, with a large Cohen’s d effect size (0.84). Finally, as a general analysis, the KTK3+ raw results (RS) and results translated to Global Motor Quotient (GQM), revealed significant differences between IG_A and IG_B post-intervention, with p < 0.001 for both variables’ comparison and with large Cohen’s d effect sizes for both (1.581 for RS and 1.595 for GQM), favoring IG_B. Conclusions: Both programs led to improvements in the various KTK3+ battery tasks. However, only the program that combined athletics training with multiactivity training led to significant improvements in the EHC test and in the overall KTK3+ results of the children involved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Efficiency in Kinesiology: Innovative Approaches in Enhancing Motor Skills for Athletic Performance, 4th Edition)
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12 pages, 759 KB  
Communication
Physical Function, Muscle Strength, and Fatigue in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis: An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Study
by Olimar Leite de Assis Cunha, Luciane Coral Siciliani, Marcelo Barbosa Anzanel, Whesley Tanor Silva, Tatiana Rehder Gonçalves, Mauro Felippe Felix Mediano, Marina Papais Alvarenga, Regina Maria Papais Alvarenga and Hélcio Alvarenga Filho
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040477 - 10 Dec 2025
Viewed by 206
Abstract
Background: Physical function, muscle strength, and fatigue are often impaired in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). This study aimed to assess these parameters and their associations. Methods: This cross-sectional study included patients with relapsing-remitting MS. Physical function was assessed using the [...] Read more.
Background: Physical function, muscle strength, and fatigue are often impaired in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). This study aimed to assess these parameters and their associations. Methods: This cross-sectional study included patients with relapsing-remitting MS. Physical function was assessed using the dynamic gait index (DGI), two-minute walk test (2MWT), and Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS). Muscle strength and fatigue were assessed using a load cell (measured in kgf). Generalized linear models (GLMs) with log link and gamma distribution examined the associations between MS and physical function, muscle strength, and fatigue. In the MS group, GLMs explored links between fatigue, muscle strength, and physical function. Results: Forty-seven individuals participated (18 MS; 27 controls). Patients with MS showed reduced physical function and muscle strength, and higher fatigue. Knee extension fatigue was associated with DGI (Exp β = 0.23; p = 0.03), 2MWT (Exp β = 0.11; p = 0.02), and EDSS (Exp β = 17.17; p < 0.0001); knee flexion fatigue was associated with EDSS (Exp β = 2.45; p = 0.006). Knee flexion and extension strength were also associated with EDSS. Conclusions: Patients with MS show reduced physical function and strength, increased fatigue, and knee muscle performance. The associations between strength, fatigue, and functional outcomes varied in magnitude, with knee-related measures, especially knee extension fatigue, showing the most consistent relationships. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
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10 pages, 545 KB  
Article
Short-Term Foot and Postural Adaptations During an Industrial Workday: A Workplace-Based Biomechanical Assessment
by Alejandro Jesús Almenar-Arasanz, Javier Alfaro-Santafé, Antonio Gómez-Bernal, Jose Luis Perez-Lasierra, Belén Lacárcel-Tejero, José Antonio Villalba-Ruete, Cristina Cimarras-Otal, Juan Rabal-Pelay and Ana Vanessa Bataller-Cervero
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040476 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 246
Abstract
Background: Prolonged standing is common in industrial environments and may induce functional adaptations in the foot and postural system. This study aimed to evaluate short-term changes in foot posture and plantar pressure distribution after a working day in assembly line workers. Methods: Forty [...] Read more.
Background: Prolonged standing is common in industrial environments and may induce functional adaptations in the foot and postural system. This study aimed to evaluate short-term changes in foot posture and plantar pressure distribution after a working day in assembly line workers. Methods: Forty participants (31 males, 9 females; mean age 44 ± 7 years; BMI 26.1 ± 3.6 kg/m2) performed standing tasks during an 8 h shift. Static baropodometric measurements and 3D foot scans were obtained before and after the workday to assess plantar pressure, contact area, and arch height. The Spanish versions of the Cornell Musculoskeletal Discomfort Questionnaire (CMDQ) and the Foot Function Index (FFI) were used to evaluate discomfort and functional status. Paired t-tests were applied, and correlations were analyzed (p < 0.05). Results: Left-foot arch height decreased significantly after the workday (mean change = 0.6 mm; p = 0.027). Both mean and peak plantar pressures declined (p < 0.001), along with moderate reductions in contact area (p ≤ 0.05). The center of pressure shifted mediolaterally, and discomfort was most frequent in the lower back, knees, and feet. A positive correlation was found between arch height reduction and FFI score (r = 0.349; p = 0.028). Conclusions: Prolonged standing was associated with measurable adaptations in foot posture and plantar pressure, possibly indicating short-term fatigue or compensatory postural adjustments. These results emphasize the importance of assessing plantar load and foot morphology as indicators of potential functional responses to sustained standing and as possible targets for ergonomic and rehabilitation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies—2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 536 KB  
Article
Effects of a Scapular-Focused Exercise Protocol for Patients with Rotator Cuff-Related Pain Syndrome—A Randomized Clinical Trial
by Cristina dos Santos, Isabel Bastos de Almeida, Mark A. Jones and Ricardo Matias
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040475 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 734
Abstract
Background: Current clinical practice still lacks consistent evidence in the physiotherapy management of rotator cuff-related pain syndrome (RCS). The purpose of this trial was to compare the effectiveness of a scapular-focused treatment with and without real-time electromyographic biofeedback (EMGBF) to a control [...] Read more.
Background: Current clinical practice still lacks consistent evidence in the physiotherapy management of rotator cuff-related pain syndrome (RCS). The purpose of this trial was to compare the effectiveness of a scapular-focused treatment with and without real-time electromyographic biofeedback (EMGBF) to a control therapy in patients with RCS, in the short-term. Methods: 60 patients with RCS were divided into three groups: the scapular-focused exercise protocol group (P_G n = 20), the scapular-focused exercise protocol with EMGBF group (P+EMGBF_G n = 20), and the control therapy group (CT_G n = 20). Values of pain and function [Shoulder Pain and Disability Index (SPADI) questionnaire, complemented by the Numeric Pain Rating Scale (NPRS) and Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) questionnaire], scapular stabilizer neuromuscular control (SSNC), scapular stabilizer activation onset (SSAO), dynamic scapular alignment, range of motion (ROM), and glenohumeral flexor and abductor muscle strength (GMS) were assessed at baseline and after 6 weeks and compared within and between groups. Results: There were significant differences in pain and function, SSNC, SSAO, dynamic scapular alignment, ROM, and GMS in all groups between the initial and 6-week assessments. However, the P+EMGBF_G showed superior results in pain and function, SSNC, and dynamic scapular alignment than the CT_G and superior results in SSNC than the P_G. The P_G had superior results in pain and function and dynamic scapular alignment than the CT_G. Conclusions: This trial supports the use of a scapular-focused exercise protocol as a comparative approach that effectively improves pain and function in patients with rotator cuff-related shoulder pain syndrome. These results in pain and function were shown to be independent of the use of EMGBF. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Injury to Recovery: Rehabilitation Strategies for Athletes)
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13 pages, 309 KB  
Review
Differences in Total Daily Energy Expenditure Across Field Sports: A Narrative Review
by Brenen Skalitzky, Jennifer B. Fields, Margaret T. Jones, Chad M. Kerksick and Andrew R. Jagim
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 474; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040474 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 490
Abstract
Background: Differences in total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) across sports, sex, and skill level support the need for sport- and athlete-specific energy intake recommendations. The purpose of the current review was to examine TDEE and related markers of energy expenditure across field-based [...] Read more.
Background: Differences in total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) across sports, sex, and skill level support the need for sport- and athlete-specific energy intake recommendations. The purpose of the current review was to examine TDEE and related markers of energy expenditure across field-based team sports. A secondary aim was to evaluate physical activity levels (PAL), calculated as TDEE divided by resting metabolic rate (RMR), and their utility in estimating energy needs within team sports. Methods: The review was limited to studies that included the field-based team sports of rugby or soccer and reported energy expenditure data using doubly labeled water (DLW). A literature review identified 11 studies meeting criteria. Weighted means (Xw) and standard deviations (SDw) were calculated for each variable when pooled across each sport category. Results: Rugby (4417 ± 654 kcal·d−1) had a higher average TDEE than soccer (3157 ± 331 kcal/day; p < 0.001). When normalized to body mass, rTDEE was similar between sports (rugby: 49.5 ± 1.3 kcal·kg−1·day−1; soccer: 49.3 ± 1.8 kcal·kg−1·day−1; p = 0.967). PAL values were significantly higher in rugby (2.2 ± 0.4) compared to soccer (1.7 ± 0.2; p = 0.004). RMR was also greater in rugby (2136 ± 322 kcal·d−1) compared to soccer (1835 ± 208 kcal·d−1; p = 0.04). Conclusions: Rugby athletes exhibited higher TDEE values than soccer athletes, reflecting greater absolute energy demands. However, similar relative TDEE values suggest that differences in body size and composition likely contribute to the observed differences in absolute expenditure. These findings underscore the importance of individualized nutrition strategies within team sports and highlight PAL as a useful metric to contextualize energy requirements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutritional Strategies and Performance Optimization in Sports)
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13 pages, 1099 KB  
Article
Validation of a Rhythmic Jumping Task for the Assessment of Upper–Lower Limb Coordination: Evidence from High-Level Athletes
by Runjie Li, Hitoshi Koda, Megumi Gonno, Toru Morihara, Tetsuya Miyazaki, Tomoyuki Matsui, Teruo Nomura, Kohei Okado, Chisato Yamamoto and Noriyuki Kida
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040473 - 8 Dec 2025
Viewed by 268
Abstract
Background: A rhythmic jumping task that does not require specialized equipment may represent a simple method to assess upper–lower-limb coordination in athletes. Previous studies have been limited to groups with relatively low coordination ability; thus, whether task performance reflects the ability level or [...] Read more.
Background: A rhythmic jumping task that does not require specialized equipment may represent a simple method to assess upper–lower-limb coordination in athletes. Previous studies have been limited to groups with relatively low coordination ability; thus, whether task performance reflects the ability level or remains reproducible over time is unclear. This study determined whether the rhythmic jumping task reflects coordination levels in high-level performers, verified its generalizability as an assessment tool, and evaluated its reproducibility over time. Methods: Twenty-eight female high school volleyball players who routinely engaged in coordination training were enrolled, and performed six rhythmic jumping tasks identical to those used in a previous study. Performance was evaluated using three indices: complete performance rate (successful completion of all four series), success rate of at least one series, and average number of successful series. Twelve participants were retested 1 year later to examine reproducibility. Results: The high-level group demonstrated an overall superior performance compared to the low-level group from a previous study. Easier conditions yielded higher success rates, whereas more difficult conditions yielded lower success rates. Retest results demonstrated reproducible performance patterns over time. Conclusions: The rhythmic jumping task appropriately reflected coordination ability: high-level performers outperformed low-level performers. The task maintained a consistent difficulty order and reproducible performance across groups and over time, supporting its validity and generalizability as a practical and reliable tool to assess upper- and lower-limb coordination in applied athletic settings and provides a foundation for its further refinement and application as a standardized coordination assessment method. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
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22 pages, 2256 KB  
Article
Physiological Responder Profiles and Fatigue Dynamics in Prolonged Cycling
by Adrian Odriozola, Cristina Tirnauca, Francesc Corbi, Adriana González and Jesús Álvarez-Herms
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040472 - 8 Dec 2025
Viewed by 427
Abstract
Objectives: To characterise multidomain physiological responses to a maximal cycling effort and identify consistent physiological responder profiles. A secondary objective was to compare professionals and amateurs and assess the practical value of these profiles for personalised monitoring and performance management. Methods: [...] Read more.
Objectives: To characterise multidomain physiological responses to a maximal cycling effort and identify consistent physiological responder profiles. A secondary objective was to compare professionals and amateurs and assess the practical value of these profiles for personalised monitoring and performance management. Methods: This observational study included 22 trained male cyclists (10 professionals, 12 competitive amateurs; age 27.6 ± 6.4 years; height 177.3 ± 5.5 cm; weight 65.5 ± 4.1 kg). Participants performed a maximal 20-min functional threshold power (FTP) test and complementary assessments (Bosco jump tests, blood pressure, heart rate, lactate, glycaemia, creatine kinase, albuminuria) across three time points (baseline, immediately post-FTP, and 24 h post-FTP). Statistical analyses included t-tests, ANOVA, and Spearman correlations, for recovery dynamics, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results: Professionals exhibited significantly higher FTP (5.5 ± 0.3 vs. 4.3 ± 0.4 W/kg, p < 0.001), greater post-exercise lactate (13.8 ± 1.6 vs. 11.2 ± 1.4 mmol/L, p < 0.01) and higher CK 24-h responses (412 ± 86 vs. 291 ± 74 U/L, p < 0.05). Cardiovascular and metabolic recovery slopes were faster in professionals (p < 0.05). Despite lower baseline jump values, professionals showed reduced neuromuscular fatigue (SJ post/pre = 0.94 ± 0.04 vs. 0.88 ± 0.05, p < 0.05). FTP correlated strongly with 5-min all-out power (r = 0.76, p < 0.01) and Wingate mean power (r = 0.75, p < 0.01). Eight responder profiles emerged across four physiological domains, with professionals predominantly showing multi-domain adaptation patterns. Although additional variables, such as elevated albuminuria and altered Elasticity Index (EI), provide insight into renal and neuromechanical stress responses, they were excluded from the final profiling due to limited practical interpretability. Conclusions: Fatigue and recovery in prolonged cycling show substantial interindividual variability across neuromuscular, metabolic, cardiovascular, and biochemical domains. Professional cyclists display faster recovery and more frequent multidomain responder profiles. The four-variable model (FTP, lactate, CK, SJ post/pre) enables clear identification of physiological responder types and offers a practical, integrative framework for personalised monitoring and performance management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Sport Physiology and Performance—4th Edition)
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14 pages, 1873 KB  
Article
Dynamics of Preparatory Apneas and Their Influence on Maximal Dry Static Apnea in Breath-Hold Divers
by Dario Vrdoljak, Colin D. Hubbard, Geoff B. Coombs, Andrew T. Lovering, Ivan Drvis, Nikola Foretic, Joseph W. Duke and Željko Dujić
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040471 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 399
Abstract
Background: Physiological and psychological factors are important for determining static breath-hold duration. Preconditioning, such as preparatory apneas at functional residual capacity, is a potentially valuable method for prolonging breath-hold duration at total lung capacity. We investigated the physiological influence of preparatory apneas to [...] Read more.
Background: Physiological and psychological factors are important for determining static breath-hold duration. Preconditioning, such as preparatory apneas at functional residual capacity, is a potentially valuable method for prolonging breath-hold duration at total lung capacity. We investigated the physiological influence of preparatory apneas to determine the possible association with maximal apnea duration via diaphragmatic pressure and electromyographic measurements. Methods: Fourteen male breath-hold divers (39 ± 10 years; body mass, 87.2 ± 8.5 kg; body fat, 14.4 ± 3.8%; body height, 186.6 ± 3.9 cm; training experience, 14.2 ± 9.6 years) were included. We measured diaphragm activity during breath-holds via transdiaphragmatic pressure (Pdia) using balloon-tipped catheters in the stomach and esophagus and electromyographic (EMG) activity. From these, ∆EMG and ∆Pdia for every involuntary breathing movement (IBM) during all apneas were quantified. Furthermore, a pressure difference (difference between the first and last IBM Pdia value) and the respiratory neuromuscular output index (RNMI) (∆Pdia/∆EMG) were included as indirect parameters of the pressure perceived. These variables were measured during three preparatory breath-holds (average duration = 185 ± 69 s and range = 62–309 s, separated by 2.5 min) and three maximal breath-holds (average duration = 308 s and range = 179–733 s, separated by 5 min). Results: The preparatory apnea performed at FRC elicited significantly higher Pdia activity (p < 0.00) and a significantly lower RNMI (p = 0.00–0.01) compared to the maximal apneas. Furthermore, a higher and more pronounced increase in Pdia during the preparatory apnea at FRC was related to longer maximal apneas (Max 1, r = 0.65, p = 0.01; Max 2, r = 0.65, p = 0.02; Max 3, r = 0.66, p = 0.01). Conclusions: The results suggest an acute preconditioning effect of primarily the preparatory apnea at FRC on the duration of the subsequent maximal apneas. The implementation of preparatory apneas preceding maximal apneas during training sessions may elicit a longer breath-hold duration in trained divers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
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11 pages, 392 KB  
Article
Inspiratory Muscle Performance and Its Correlates Among Division I American Football Players
by Luis A. Feigenbaum, Lawrence P. Cahalin, Jeffrey T. Ruiz, Tristen Asken, Meryl I. Cohen, Vincent A. Scavo, Lee D. Kaplan and Julia L. Rapicavoli
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040470 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 275
Abstract
Background: Inspiratory muscle performance plays a crucial role in athletic demands, yet its associations with anthropometric and positional variables in American football remain underexplored. This study examined relationships between inspiratory metrics and key characteristics in Division I collegiate football players. Methods: [...] Read more.
Background: Inspiratory muscle performance plays a crucial role in athletic demands, yet its associations with anthropometric and positional variables in American football remain underexplored. This study examined relationships between inspiratory metrics and key characteristics in Division I collegiate football players. Methods: Eighty-five Division I collegiate football players (mean academic year in school: 2.87; height: 74.3 inches; weight: 108.13 kg; BMI: 30.21) underwent the Test of Incremental Respiratory Endurance (TIRE) to measure maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP), sustained maximal inspiratory pressure (SMIP), and inspiratory duration (ID). Bivariate and multivariate analyses assessed associations with height, weight, BMI, year in school, offense/defense status, and playing position. Results: Inspiratory performance showed limited associations with anthropometric variables, with only a weak correlation between height and ID. (ρ = 0.243, p = 0.024). No significant differences were observed by year in school or position Conclusions: Inspiratory performance appears largely independent of anthropometric and positional factors; future research should explore targeted respiratory training as a hypothesis rather than a confirmed benefit. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Strength and Resistance Training: Best Practices Applied to Sports Disciplines and Performance—2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 1205 KB  
Article
The Effects of Walking Exercise Using Water Inertial Load on Dynamic Balance Ability and Pain in Women Aged 65 Years and Older with Knee Osteoarthritis: A Randomized Clinical Trial
by Moon Jung Chu, Chae Kwan Lee, Hyun Ju Kim and Il Bong Park
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040469 - 3 Dec 2025
Viewed by 415
Abstract
Background: Aging reduces proprioception and neuromuscular control, leading to impaired balance and increased pain, particularly in women aged 65 years and older with knee osteoarthritis (KOA). Therefore, this study investigated the effects of walking exercise using a water inertial load on dynamic [...] Read more.
Background: Aging reduces proprioception and neuromuscular control, leading to impaired balance and increased pain, particularly in women aged 65 years and older with knee osteoarthritis (KOA). Therefore, this study investigated the effects of walking exercise using a water inertial load on dynamic balance and pain in this population. Methods: Thirty-four women aged 65 years and older with KOA were recruited and randomly assigned to an experimental group (Aqua Vest group, n = 17) or a control group (weighted vest group, n = 17). After dropout, data from 28 participants were included in the analysis. Both groups performed the same walking exercise program twice weekly for eight weeks. Dynamic balance was evaluated using the Y-Balance Test (YBT), postural control using center of pressure (COP), and pain using the visual analogue scale (VAS). Data were analyzed using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for between-group comparisons and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for within-group changes. Results: The experimental group showed significantly greater improvement in YBT composite scores compared with the control group (p < 0.05). COP velocity showed a significant improvement in the anterior direction (p < 0.05), whereas no significant differences were observed in other directions. Pain decreased in both groups, but no significant between-group difference was observed. Conclusions: Eight weeks of walking exercise using a water inertial load significantly improved dynamic balance and showed a positive trend toward pain reduction in women aged 65 years and older with KOA. These findings suggest that the nonlinear inertial characteristics of water may enhance sensory–motor integration and postural control, contributing to improved balance performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Functional Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System)
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11 pages, 3226 KB  
Article
Comparison of Training Effects of Bounding and Single Leg Jumps for Speed on Sprint and Jump Kinematics in Young Female Football Players
by Bjørn Johansen, Jonathon Neville and Roland van den Tillaar
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 468; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040468 - 2 Dec 2025
Viewed by 795
Abstract
Objectives: This study compared the training effects of two horizontal plyometric training interventions over six weeks on sprint performance and jump kinematics in young female athletes. Methods: Nineteen female football players (age 15.3 ± 0.5 years) were stratified by sprint time into a [...] Read more.
Objectives: This study compared the training effects of two horizontal plyometric training interventions over six weeks on sprint performance and jump kinematics in young female athletes. Methods: Nineteen female football players (age 15.3 ± 0.5 years) were stratified by sprint time into a bounding for speed group (n = 10) or a single leg jumps for speed group (n = 9). All participants completed pre- and post-tests including a 40 m sprint, bounding, and single leg jumps for speed with both legs. Sprint times and velocities over 10 m, 20 m, and maximal speed were recorded, and jump kinematics (horizontal velocity, step length, and step frequency) were analyzed. Results: A significant main effect of time was found for sprint performance, indicating that both groups improved overall. The single-leg jump group showed significant within-group improvements across all sprint measures (10 m, 20 m, maximal velocity, and 40 m time) and significant increases in horizontal velocity and step length during the single-leg jump with both legs. The bounding group showed no significant sprint improvements, with only a within-group increase in step frequency during bounding and a trend toward shorter step length (p = 0.037, ηp2 = 0.40). Conclusions: Both training groups improved sprint performance overall, but only the single-leg jump group showed consistent within-group gains in both sprint and jump performance. These findings suggest that single-leg jumps for speed may be a practical and effective option for developing sprint-related qualities in young female football players, although the differences between groups should be interpreted with caution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength Training and Performance Enhancement in Athletes, 3rd Edition)
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15 pages, 1480 KB  
Article
Ultrasound-Based Assessment of Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Changes During a 7-Day Ultramarathon: Association with Anthropometric Indices, Not Body Mass
by Daniela Chlíbková, Beat Knechtle, Katja Weiss, Ingrid Kováčová and Thomas Rosemann
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040467 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 216
Abstract
Background: Accurately tracking body-composition changes in endurance field settings remains methodologically challenging. This study aimed to evaluate whether changes in subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) across a 7-day ultramarathon are better reflected by anthropometric indices than by body mass (BM) alone. Methods: [...] Read more.
Background: Accurately tracking body-composition changes in endurance field settings remains methodologically challenging. This study aimed to evaluate whether changes in subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) across a 7-day ultramarathon are better reflected by anthropometric indices than by body mass (BM) alone. Methods: Twenty ultrarunners were assessed using both anthropometric indices and ultrasound measurements of SAT thickness, applying a novel method that distinguishes layers including (DI) versus excluding (DE) embedded fibrous structures. Measurements were obtained before the race and after Stages 4 and 7. Indices included body mass index (BMI), mass index (MII), and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR). Results: Total SAT thickness decreased significantly for both DI (p = 0.001) and DE (p < 0.001). BM, BMI, MII, and WHtR also declined significantly post-race (p < 0.001). SAT reduction was most pronounced at the abdominal and thigh sites. Additionally, ultrarunners with lower DE values exhibited lower fat at the abdomen and distal triceps. BMI was significantly related to DE at the upper and lower abdomen and erector spinae; MII was significantly associated with DE at the upper and lower abdomen; and WHtR correlated with both DE and DI at abdominal and erector spinae sites. BM showed no significant association with any SAT parameter. Conclusions: Ultrasound-derived SAT thickness, in combination with BMI, MII, and WHtR, offers a field-feasible approach to evaluate body-composition change during multistage ultramarathons. In contrast, BM alone does not reliably reflect SAT distribution or loss. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
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13 pages, 947 KB  
Review
Potential Effect of Intravascular Laser Irradiation of Blood (ILIB) in Improving Physical Performance: A Narrative Review
by Marcia Cristina Bortoleto Rotta-Ribas, Yann Zurutuza, Robson Chacon Castoldi, Paula Felippe Martinez and Silvio Assis de Oliveira-Junior
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040466 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 610
Abstract
Background: The intravascular laser irradiation of blood (ILIB) is a low-power laser technique that has been studied since the 1970s, and it is associated with the substantial capability to modulate various physiological processes. Indeed, ILIB involves the irradiation of blood with low-intensity light, [...] Read more.
Background: The intravascular laser irradiation of blood (ILIB) is a low-power laser technique that has been studied since the 1970s, and it is associated with the substantial capability to modulate various physiological processes. Indeed, ILIB involves the irradiation of blood with low-intensity light, typically within the red or near-infrared spectrum, to trigger a cascade of photochemical and photobiological events. Objective: This study aimed to analyze previous findings regarding ILIB effects on physical performance. Methods: This study is a narrative review of the literature, addressing the effects of ILIB on multiple organ systems and its impact on physical performance. Results: The most found effects include antioxidant activation, inhibition of inflammatory processes, increased blood fluidity, and improved hemorheological properties. The ILIB affects blood rheological properties based on vasodilatation and decreasing aggregation of thrombocytes. Other effects include improved deformability of erythrocytes, which results in a better supply of oxygen and a decrease in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide. Since ILIB is a photobiomodulation procedure, other applications can be considered, such as ergogenic intervention. In this context, ILIB may favor performance in aerobic exercises and contribute to practices involving anaerobic metabolism by facilitating phosphocreatine resynthesis and ATP restoration. Conclusions: Multiple findings seek to support the potential benefits of ILIB on metabolic and cardiovascular responses associated with exercise training, providing potential improvements in athletic performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)
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16 pages, 511 KB  
Article
Exploring the Impact of a Low-Dose Mindfulness Intervention on Perceived Exertion, Attention, and Rowing Performance
by Rebekah Bakken-Gay, Sarah E. Junkersfeld and Robyn Braun-Trocchio
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040465 - 1 Dec 2025
Viewed by 545
Abstract
Objectives: This study examined the effects of a four-week low-dose mindfulness intervention on ratings of perceived exertion, heart rate, attentional allocation, and performance outcomes, including power output, distance rowed, and strokes per minute, during a rowing task. Methods: Thirty-two participants between [...] Read more.
Objectives: This study examined the effects of a four-week low-dose mindfulness intervention on ratings of perceived exertion, heart rate, attentional allocation, and performance outcomes, including power output, distance rowed, and strokes per minute, during a rowing task. Methods: Thirty-two participants between 18 and 37 years of age (21.09 ± 3.67) who met the World Health Organization (WHO) physical activity guidelines and had no previous experience with mindfulness or meditation completed a four-week intervention. Participants were either in the mindfulness intervention (n = 17) or the placebo group (n = 15). Participants completed ten visits over four weeks, each consisting of watching an episode of either Headspace Guide to Meditation or Wild Babies on Netflix, followed by a 25 min rowing task. Results: Results indicated no significant group-by-session interaction for any variables. However, a significant main effect for session showed that perceived exertion was significantly lower at the post-assessment compared to the pre-assessment for all participants (p = 0.013, ηp2 = 0.19). Additionally, a significant main effect for time revealed a linear increase in perceived exertion across the rowing task (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.81). Both groups also showed a significant shift from dissociative to associative attention (p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.25). For performance, a significant main effect for session was observed, with greater power output (p = 0.008, ηp2 = 0.22) and distance rowed (p = 0.013, ηp2 = 0.19) at the post-assessment for both groups. Conclusions: The lack of significant group differences suggests that a low-dose, pre-exercise mindfulness video intervention is likely ineffective for altering psychophysiological responses, indicating that future research should prioritize higher-dosage or real-time guided interventions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physical Exercise for Health Promotion)
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13 pages, 624 KB  
Article
Monitoring Treadmill Physical Exercise and Recovery in Elite Water Polo Players with Local Muscle Oxygen Saturation Measurements—Regional and Sex Differences
by Máté Babity, Márk Zámodics, Éva Kovács, Ágnes Bucskó-Varga, Panka Kulcsár, Dóra Boroncsok, Regina Benkő, Alexandra Fábián, Márton Horváth, Dorottya Balla, Bálint K. Lakatos, Attila Kovács, Hajnalka Vágó, Béla Merkely and Orsolya Kiss
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 464; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040464 - 28 Nov 2025
Viewed by 336
Abstract
Background: Despite numerous data on whole-body responses, we have less information about local muscular changes during physical exercise in athletes. Oxygen saturation (SmO2) changes in the working muscles follow phases of load and are useful, as local metabolism could influence [...] Read more.
Background: Despite numerous data on whole-body responses, we have less information about local muscular changes during physical exercise in athletes. Oxygen saturation (SmO2) changes in the working muscles follow phases of load and are useful, as local metabolism could influence physical fitness. Methods: A total of 100 asymptomatic elite water polo players (63% male, age: 17.2 (interquartile range: 16.1–18.9) years) were examined using near-infrared spectroscopy to measure SmO2 in both vastus lateralis and left deltoid muscles during continuous uphill running treadmill exercise. Results: Differences were observed between upper and averaged lower limb resting SmO2 (82.1% (77.0–89.0%) vs. 68.3% (59.2–73.6%), p < 0.001). During exercise, the relative decrease in averaged lower limb SmO2 was greater compared to the upper limb at the anaerobic threshold (−0.371 (−0.539–−0.200) vs. –0.224 (−0.340–−0.099), p < 0.001) and at maximal exercise (−0.557 (−0.750–−0.411) vs. –0.420 (−0.556–−0.271), p < 0.001). Higher averaged lower limb relative SmO2 was recorded compared to the upper limb after 5 min cool-down (+0.081% (−0.046–+0.195%) vs. –0.047% (−0.140–+0.000), p < 0.001). No differences were found between males and females in resting lower limb SmO2. Both sexes showed a monotonic decrease in SmO2 during exercise, with differences in the relative values at the anaerobic threshold and at maximal intensity. Females exhibited a rebound in SmO2 after a 5 min cool-down. Conclusions: We provide insights into SmO2 alterations during maximal-intensity exercise and recovery through the measurements of elite water polo athletes, also highlighting sex differences in SmO2. Measuring local SmO2 changes is a promising additional method in physical fitness follow-up. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water-Based Team Sports: Performance, Training Strategies, and Athlete Development)
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15 pages, 1433 KB  
Article
A Cross-Sectional Survey of Musculoskeletal Injuries in South African Shotokan Karate
by Mikala de Wet and Christopher Yelverton
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 463; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040463 - 27 Nov 2025
Viewed by 426
Abstract
Objectives: This study investigated the prevalence and severity of musculoskeletal injuries within South Africa’s most popular karate style, Shotokan, a previously unexamined area. As an exploratory study, it aimed to generate hypotheses by determining the prevalence, severity, and nature of these injuries to [...] Read more.
Objectives: This study investigated the prevalence and severity of musculoskeletal injuries within South Africa’s most popular karate style, Shotokan, a previously unexamined area. As an exploratory study, it aimed to generate hypotheses by determining the prevalence, severity, and nature of these injuries to address this significant gap in the national combat sports literature. Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional design was employed, utilizing a confidential online questionnaire distributed through various Shotokan organizations. The study gathered 155 responses (26.85% response rate). Results: The findings revealed a high injury prevalence, with 47.3% of participants reporting at least four injuries. These injuries occurred equally in training and competition (56.5%) and developed both acutely and over time (53.4%). Experienced practitioners at the Shodan level were particularly affected. The knee was the most frequently injured body part (11.6%), and muscle strains were the most common injury type (19.3%). Notably, 26.2% of karatekas continued training despite being injured. A significant weak positive correlation was found between years of training experience and injury levels (rs = 0.275, p = 0.007). However, no significant associations were found between injury prevalence and age, BMI, or training frequency. General practitioners were the most consulted healthcare professionals (22.0%). Conclusions: This study establishes a high prevalence of musculoskeletal injuries among South African Shotokan karatekas, particularly associated with experienced practitioners. These findings are hypothesis-generating, and the cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences. The data provides a crucial foundation for future longitudinal research to investigate causality and for developing evidence-based injury prevention protocols, particularly for the knee. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Perspectives and Challenges in Sports Medicine for Combat Sports)
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22 pages, 621 KB  
Review
Performance-Enhancing Effects of Inhaled Medications: Implications for Heart, Muscle Function, and Doping Detection in Athletes
by Riccardo Cricco, Andrea Segreti, Emanuele Stirpe, Aurora Ferro, Martina Ciancio, Flavia Cipriani, Chiara Fossati, Gian Paolo Ussia, Fabio Pigozzi and Francesco Grigioni
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 462; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040462 - 26 Nov 2025
Viewed by 660
Abstract
Inhaled medications, commonly prescribed for respiratory conditions such as asthma and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, are increasingly scrutinized in sports medicine due to their potential performance-enhancing effects. Bronchodilators, in particular, may improve lung function, increase oxygen delivery, and influence muscle contractility, potentially enhancing athletic performance. [...] Read more.
Inhaled medications, commonly prescribed for respiratory conditions such as asthma and exercise-induced bronchoconstriction, are increasingly scrutinized in sports medicine due to their potential performance-enhancing effects. Bronchodilators, in particular, may improve lung function, increase oxygen delivery, and influence muscle contractility, potentially enhancing athletic performance. However, supratherapeutic use raises concerns about cardiovascular risks, including tachyarrhythmias and altered autonomic balance, as well as muscle hypertrophy and sprint capacity gains. These effects blur the line between therapeutic use and doping, creating challenges for fair competition. This review explores the mechanisms by which inhaled drugs affect the cardiovascular and muscular systems, summarizes notable doping cases, and evaluates current detection methods. Despite regulatory thresholds established by the World Anti-Doping Agency, assay interpretation remains complicated by inter-individual variability, short drug half-lives, and enantiomeric differences. Addressing these gaps requires refined pharmacokinetic modeling, enantioselective assays, and metabolomic fingerprinting to safeguard both athlete health and the integrity of sport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sports Medicine and Nutrition)
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13 pages, 792 KB  
Article
Medium- and Long-Term Effectiveness of Custom Insoles for Cavus Foot: A Surface Electromyography Study
by Sara García-Bautista, Antonio Gómez-Bernal, Javier Alfaro-Santafé and Jose Luis Perez-Lasierra
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040461 - 25 Nov 2025
Viewed by 453
Abstract
Background: Cavus foot, defined by an increased medial longitudinal arch and often forefoot plantarflexion, alters biomechanics and increases peak plantar pressures, raising the risk of musculoskeletal disorders such as metatarsalgia, Achilles tendinopathy, and gait instability. Custom foot orthoses are the preferred conservative treatment, [...] Read more.
Background: Cavus foot, defined by an increased medial longitudinal arch and often forefoot plantarflexion, alters biomechanics and increases peak plantar pressures, raising the risk of musculoskeletal disorders such as metatarsalgia, Achilles tendinopathy, and gait instability. Custom foot orthoses are the preferred conservative treatment, offering plantar support, pressure redistribution, and reduction in compensatory muscle activity. This study evaluated the medium- and long-term effectiveness of custom orthoses in 71 patients with cavus feet using surface electromyography (sEMG) and the same shoes. Methods: Muscle activity of the peroneus longus, peroneus brevis, and gastrocnemius was recorded during treadmill gait after one and four months of orthotic use. Results: Significant reductions in muscles were observed, especially after four months, confirming greater long-term effectiveness. No residual benefits were found when participants walked without orthoses. Conclusions: These findings support the clinical value of insoles in reducing the compensatory muscle activity in cavus feet and emphasize the importance of investigating their long-term role in biomechanics and potential pathology risk reduction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic The Mechanics of Movement: Biomechanics in Sports Performance)
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14 pages, 1606 KB  
Article
Physiological, Performance, and Oxidative Stress Responses to High-Intensity Uphill and Downhill Interval Training
by George Theofilidis, Gregory C. Bogdanis, Antonia Kaltsatou, Konstantina P. Poulianiti, Georgia I. Mitrou, Clara Suemi da Costa Rosa, Kalliopi Georgakouli, Antonios Stavropoulos-Kalinoglou, Argyro A. Krase, Fani Chasioti-Fourli, Nikolaos Syrmos, Giorgos K. Sakkas, Yiannis Koutedakis and Christina Karatzaferi
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040460 - 24 Nov 2025
Viewed by 746
Abstract
Objectives: We examined how opposing running slopes can modulate interval training effects on aerobic performance and reduction–oxidation (REDOX) determinants. Methods: Fourteen physically active volunteers, assigned to either the Uphill group (UG) or the Downhill group (DG), completed 16 workouts of ten [...] Read more.
Objectives: We examined how opposing running slopes can modulate interval training effects on aerobic performance and reduction–oxidation (REDOX) determinants. Methods: Fourteen physically active volunteers, assigned to either the Uphill group (UG) or the Downhill group (DG), completed 16 workouts of ten 30-s runs, at either +10% or −10% grade, with a work-to-rest ratio of 1:2 at 90% of their Maximum Aerobic Speed (MAS) over 8 weeks. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), MAS, Running Economy (RE), time to exhaustion at MAS (Tmax), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and blood lactate at rest, 5th, and 10th runs were evaluated pre-, mid-, and post-training. Also, REDOX markers [Total Antioxidant Capacity (TAC), Protein Carbonyls (PCs) were assessed in blood samples taken at rest and 3 min post-exercise of the first and last workouts. Results: VO2max was unchanged in both groups; in the DG, MAS increased (from 14.2 ± 1.7 to 15.0 ± 1.5 km/h, d = 0.43), and post-training RER significantly increased (from 1.06 ± 0.07 to 1.12 ± 0.03). In the last training session, blood lactate levels increased in the UG (from 9.30 ± 2.69 mmοl/L to 13.34 ± 4.64 mmοl/L) but remained low and unchanged in DG (<2 mmοl/L). Post-training, resting TAC decreased in both groups, and the exercise-induced rise in PC levels was attenuated. Conclusions: Despite the brief intervention, VO2max levels were maintained in both groups, with divergent changes in metabolic, REDOX, and performance indicators; uphill HIIT may serve for enhancing lactate tolerance, while downhill intermittent running may improve running economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Performance: Training Strategies to Improve Strength, Speed, Power, and Endurance)
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15 pages, 1285 KB  
Article
Influence of Jump and Ball Release Parameters on Shooting Accuracy in Basketball Under Varying Constraints
by Catarina M. Amaro, Maria António Castro, Rui Mendes, Hannah Rice and Beatriz B. Gomes
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040459 - 21 Nov 2025
Viewed by 699
Abstract
Background: This study investigates how both jump-related (jump height and flight time) and ball-related parameters (release height, release angle, and velocity) influence shooting accuracy in basketball under different contextual constraints. Methods: Eighteen senior players competing in the national championship (11 females [...] Read more.
Background: This study investigates how both jump-related (jump height and flight time) and ball-related parameters (release height, release angle, and velocity) influence shooting accuracy in basketball under different contextual constraints. Methods: Eighteen senior players competing in the national championship (11 females and 7 males; 22.0 ± 3.7 years) performed 90 shots each across three positions (left 45°, middle 90°, right 45°) and three shooting conditions (baseline, simulated gym audience noise, and simulated opposition). Jump variables were derived from force platforms, while ball kinematics were extracted using a high-speed Qualisys camera system. Results: A three-way ANOVA revealed no systematic effects of position or opposition, and only a small effect of noise on flight time (p = 0.019), which was not confirmed by the Linear Mixed Model. Comparisons between successful and missed shots indicated significantly higher flight time, jump height, and release height, and a tendency for higher release velocity in successful attempts, with no differences in release angle. Spearman correlation showed weak associations between biomechanical variables and shooting accuracy (R2 = 0.005–0.012). Conclusions: These findings suggest that while adaptive biomechanical changes occur under contextual constraints, their isolated impact on shot success is limited. Successful performance appears to rely more strongly on release-related parameters, emphasizing the need for a holistic approach to training that integrates technical, perceptual, and psychological dimensions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanical Analysis in Physical Activity and Sports—2nd Edition)
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9 pages, 852 KB  
Article
Effect of Eight Weeks of in Season Training with Wearable Resistance Attached to the Forearm on Spike Velocity in Female Volleyball Players
by Milosz Mielniczek, Patrick Lunde, Wojciech Grzyb and Roland van den Tillaar
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040458 - 21 Nov 2025
Viewed by 612
Abstract
Objective: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of eight weeks of in-season training with wearable resistance attached to the forearm on spike velocity in female volleyball players. Methods: A total of 13 senior female volleyball players belonging to the [...] Read more.
Objective: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of eight weeks of in-season training with wearable resistance attached to the forearm on spike velocity in female volleyball players. Methods: A total of 13 senior female volleyball players belonging to the same team (age 23.5 ± 3.2 years, body mass 66.8 ± 6.9 kg, and height 174.7 ± 5.8 cm) participated and were divided into an experimental group (n = 7) or a control group (n = 6). Both groups participated in the same training sessions, but the experimental group trained with wearable resistance attached to the forearm, while the control group wore wearable resistance on the calf during the training sessions. Before and after an eight-week training period, spike velocity was tested. Results: The main findings were that spike velocity did not increase in either group, which was contrary to our hypothesis. In fact, neither the forearm-loaded experimental group nor the calf-loaded control group showed any performance improvement; instead, both groups demonstrated small, non-significant declines in spike velocity over the 8-week period (on average, about 2.1% in both groups). These outcomes occurred with high individual variability, with no significant difference between the groups (time × group: F(1, 11) = 0.008, p = 0.929). The between-group contrast was trivial, reinforcing that the forearm-loading intervention offered no clear benefit over normal training in practical terms. Conclusions: Taken at face value, this protocol does not support using wearable resistance during the competitive season to enhance spike velocity. It may be that off-season or individualized-load protocols could elicit more positive effects when overall training and fatigue levels are better controlled. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
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7 pages, 212 KB  
Editorial
Special Issue “Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies”
by Vasiliki Sakellari and George Gioftsos
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040457 - 21 Nov 2025
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Abstract
Posture, balance, and gait are central determinants of human movement, independence, and quality of life [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Posture, Balance, and Gait: Assessment Techniques and Rehabilitation Strategies)
12 pages, 285 KB  
Article
Relative Age Effect in Olympic Karate: Evidence from Tokyo 2020
by Sofia Serafini, Simone Ciaccioni, Gabriele Mascherini and Pascal Izzicupo
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040456 - 21 Nov 2025
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Abstract
Background: The Relative Age Effect (RAE) refers to the advantage conferred to athletes born earlier within a selection year. In karate, particularly at the highest level, evidence is lacking. This study aimed to examine the presence of RAE among male and female karate [...] Read more.
Background: The Relative Age Effect (RAE) refers to the advantage conferred to athletes born earlier within a selection year. In karate, particularly at the highest level, evidence is lacking. This study aimed to examine the presence of RAE among male and female karate athletes competing at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, in two competitive disciplines: kata and kumite. Methods: Data from 81 athletes (42 males, 39 females) were retrieved from open-access databases. Birthdates were grouped into quartiles (Q1–Q4) and semesters (S1–S2). Chi-squared tests and odds ratios (ORs) were used to assess deviations from a uniform distribution, while binary logistic regression examined the association between semester of birth and medal attainment. Results: The overall distribution of birth quartiles significantly deviated from a uniform distribution (χ2(3) = 9.81, p = 0.020), indicating a higher proportion of athletes born in Q1 (38%) compared with Q4 (19%; OR = 2.07). RAE was particularly evident in kumite (χ2(3) = 17.87, p < 0.001; OR = 3.50 for Q1 vs. Q4) and among female athletes (χ2(3) = 9.92, p = 0.019), whereas no significant effect was found in kata or among males. Logistic regression revealed no significant association between semester of birth and medal success (OR = 0.49, 95% CI [0.20–1.21], p = 0.125). Conclusions: This study provides the first evidence of RAE in Olympic karate, especially among females and in kumite. However, relative age did not predict performance outcomes, suggesting that once athletes reach the Olympic level, technical and tactical factors outweigh birthdate advantages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Athletic Training and Human Performance)
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11 pages, 514 KB  
Article
Test–Retest Reliability, Parallel Test Reliability, and Internal Consistency of Balance Assessments in Young Healthy Adults
by Teni Steingräber, Leon von Grönheim, Jana Wienecke, Rieke Regel, Christoph Schütz, Thomas Schack and Jitka Veldema
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040455 - 20 Nov 2025
Viewed by 567
Abstract
Objectives: An objective evaluation of balance abilities is crucial in research, rehabilitation, sport, and daily life. With ongoing technical advancements, the number of innovative evaluation tools is continuously increasing. This study assessed the methodological quality of various differential balance assessments in young, healthy [...] Read more.
Objectives: An objective evaluation of balance abilities is crucial in research, rehabilitation, sport, and daily life. With ongoing technical advancements, the number of innovative evaluation tools is continuously increasing. This study assessed the methodological quality of various differential balance assessments in young, healthy adults. Methods: Two technically sophisticated balance assessments using a force plate (Single-Leg Landing Test, Single-Leg Squat Test) and a conventional balance assessment using a simple test kit (Y-Balance Test) were applied to 42 students at two different time points. Test–retest reliability, parallel test reliability, and internal consistency were evaluated for each test and item. Results: All tests and (almost) all items showed excellent to acceptable test–retest reliability. In all tests, internal consistency was detected for only some items, while the other items were internally inconsistent. Only a small proportion of tests and/or their items demonstrated acceptable parallel test reliability. The balance performance of the right and left legs showed excellent or good reliability for each item. Conclusions: Significant test–retest reliability and consistency between right and left leg performance suggest good methodological quality of the assessments. The lack of parallel test consistency aligns with previous studies that emphasise the multi-faceted nature of balance tasks, suggesting that balance ability is task-specific rather than a “general ability”. Future studies should investigate and compare the biological and neural backgrounds of differential balance tasks to provide further insights into this topic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Kinesiology and Biomechanics)
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29 pages, 4268 KB  
Review
Knee Health Is a Major Determinant of Mobility Across the Healthspan
by Brandon Marshall Peoples, Kenneth D. Harrison, Michael A. Samaan, Christopher B. Mobley, David T. Redden and Jaimie A. Roper
J. Funct. Morphol. Kinesiol. 2025, 10(4), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk10040454 - 20 Nov 2025
Viewed by 553
Abstract
Knee health constitutes a pivotal determinant of locomotor function and overall mobility throughout the healthspan. Impairments in knee function lead to a series of biomechanical and physiological alterations that pose substantial public health challenges and economic burdens worldwide. This review synthesizes evidence that [...] Read more.
Knee health constitutes a pivotal determinant of locomotor function and overall mobility throughout the healthspan. Impairments in knee function lead to a series of biomechanical and physiological alterations that pose substantial public health challenges and economic burdens worldwide. This review synthesizes evidence that delineates the complex and multifaceted relationship between knee health and mobility, emphasizing the interplay across various domains in adult populations. Knee health is conceptualized as a dynamic, interconnected system whereby structural integrity, neuromuscular mechanisms, biomechanical adaptations, and functional mobility are intricately interrelated through cascades of mechanistic processes operating across different temporal stages. A comprehensive understanding of these interrelationships is necessary for developing precise and targeted interventions that aim to preserve mobility and functional independence throughout the healthspan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Feature Papers in Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology)
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