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Volume 14
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10.3390/dj14050269
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Article

LOESS-Based Cephalometric Growth Curves for Clinical Assessment of Craniofacial Development: A Cross-Sectional Study

by
Luis Pablo Cruz-Hervert
1,2,
Luis Cruz-Chávez
1,
Jeta Kiseri-Kubati
3,
Álvaro Edgar González-Aragón Pineda
4,
Gerardo Martínez-Suárez
4,
Carla Monserrat Ramírez-Martínez
1,
Socorro Aída Borges-Yañez
1,
Juan Carlos Solorio-Quezada
5,
María Fernanda Trujillo-Sánchez
6,
Silvia Paulina Martínez-Contreras
7,
María-Eugenia Jiménez-Corona
1,2,* and
Luis Fernando Jacinto-Alemán
1,*
1
División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacan, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
2
Departamento de Epidemiología, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez, Tlalpan, Ciudad de México 14080, Mexico
3
Orthodontic and Dentofacial Department, University for Business and Technology, Pristina 10000, Kosovo
4
Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, México 54090, Mexico
5
Escuela de Odontología, Universidad Anáhuac Campus Xalapa, Xalapa, Veracruz 91097, Mexico
6
Departamento de Ortodoncia, Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores León, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, León, Guanajuato 37689, Mexico
7
Especialidad de Ortodoncia, Universidad Cuauhtémoc, San Luis Potosí, San Luis Potosí 78290, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Dent. J. 2026, 14(5), 269; https://doi.org/10.3390/dj14050269
Submission received: 21 January 2026 / Revised: 13 March 2026 / Accepted: 16 April 2026 / Published: 4 May 2026
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Abstract

Background/Objectives: This cross-sectional study aimed to estimate the Locally Estimated Scatterplot Smoothing (LOESS)-smoothed percentiles for growth trajectories and evaluate age-related tendencies across groups using visual cross-sectional graphs. Methods: A total of 1147 patient records were analyzed, including 648 females and 469 males aged 5–20 years, with a mean age of 11.9 (SD ± 3.8) years. Twenty-seven cephalometric variables were organized into six measurement domains: cranial base, maxillary complex, mandibular complex, occlusal plane, vertical relationship, and sagittal relationship. Percentile curves were generated using LOESS regression across an age range of 5–20 years. Results: The LOESS-smoothed curves showed age-related trends across age groups. An upward trend in the curves was observed for the anterior and posterior cranial bases between 5 and 12 years of age, a plateau indicating reduced age-related change across groups during mid-adolescence. Maxillary measurements showed a similar pattern, with a clear upward tendency during childhood and reduced age-related change after approximately 12 years. Mandibular length and projection showed increasing trends during childhood, followed by a plateau or reduced slope across later age groups. The occlusal plane and vertical dimensions showed consistent patterns that approached a plateau around 12 years, indicating minimal age-related differences between groups. Changes in the ANB angle and Wits appraisal reflected a progressive forward tendency of the mandible across childhood age groups, followed by reduced age-related change during adolescence. Conclusions: These findings suggest that many craniofacial measurements show an upward trend during childhood followed by a plateau or reduced age-related change across age groups between approximately 12 and 14 years. The percentile-based growth curves presented here offer a practical reference for clinicians to evaluate craniofacial growth trajectories as population-level approximations derived from cross-sectional data in the pediatric population.
Keywords: cephalometric; craniofacial growth; percentile curves; LOESS; growth trajectories cephalometric; craniofacial growth; percentile curves; LOESS; growth trajectories

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MDPI and ACS Style

Cruz-Hervert, L.P.; Cruz-Chávez, L.; Kiseri-Kubati, J.; González-Aragón Pineda, Á.E.; Martínez-Suárez, G.; Ramírez-Martínez, C.M.; Borges-Yañez, S.A.; Solorio-Quezada, J.C.; Trujillo-Sánchez, M.F.; Martínez-Contreras, S.P.; et al. LOESS-Based Cephalometric Growth Curves for Clinical Assessment of Craniofacial Development: A Cross-Sectional Study. Dent. J. 2026, 14, 269. https://doi.org/10.3390/dj14050269

AMA Style

Cruz-Hervert LP, Cruz-Chávez L, Kiseri-Kubati J, González-Aragón Pineda ÁE, Martínez-Suárez G, Ramírez-Martínez CM, Borges-Yañez SA, Solorio-Quezada JC, Trujillo-Sánchez MF, Martínez-Contreras SP, et al. LOESS-Based Cephalometric Growth Curves for Clinical Assessment of Craniofacial Development: A Cross-Sectional Study. Dentistry Journal. 2026; 14(5):269. https://doi.org/10.3390/dj14050269

Chicago/Turabian Style

Cruz-Hervert, Luis Pablo, Luis Cruz-Chávez, Jeta Kiseri-Kubati, Álvaro Edgar González-Aragón Pineda, Gerardo Martínez-Suárez, Carla Monserrat Ramírez-Martínez, Socorro Aída Borges-Yañez, Juan Carlos Solorio-Quezada, María Fernanda Trujillo-Sánchez, Silvia Paulina Martínez-Contreras, and et al. 2026. "LOESS-Based Cephalometric Growth Curves for Clinical Assessment of Craniofacial Development: A Cross-Sectional Study" Dentistry Journal 14, no. 5: 269. https://doi.org/10.3390/dj14050269

APA Style

Cruz-Hervert, L. P., Cruz-Chávez, L., Kiseri-Kubati, J., González-Aragón Pineda, Á. E., Martínez-Suárez, G., Ramírez-Martínez, C. M., Borges-Yañez, S. A., Solorio-Quezada, J. C., Trujillo-Sánchez, M. F., Martínez-Contreras, S. P., Jiménez-Corona, M.-E., & Jacinto-Alemán, L. F. (2026). LOESS-Based Cephalometric Growth Curves for Clinical Assessment of Craniofacial Development: A Cross-Sectional Study. Dentistry Journal, 14(5), 269. https://doi.org/10.3390/dj14050269

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