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Article

Early Permian Post-Collision Extensional Setting in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt: Evidence from the Zhangfangshan Granodiorite and the Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks

by
Lei Wu
1,
Xinwei Zhai
1,*,
Erteng Wang
1,
Wanfeng Chen
2,
Gaorui Song
1,
Feifei Zheng
1,
Jiaolong Zhao
1,
Jinrong Wang
1 and
Haidong Wang
1
1
Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources in Western China (Gansu Province), School of Earth Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
2
College of Geography and Tourism, Hunan University of Arts and Science, Changde 430700, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2023, 13(12), 1468; https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121468
Submission received: 2 October 2023 / Revised: 14 November 2023 / Accepted: 16 November 2023 / Published: 22 November 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tectonic–Magmatic Evolution and Mineralization Effect in the Southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt)
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Abstract

:
Outcrops of late Paleozoic magmatic rocks are common in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt (SBOB), Southern Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), which is a key object for the understanding of regional tectonism and defining the final closure time of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO). We present zircon U-Pb chronology and whole-rock geochemistry data for late Paleozoic granodiorites and bimodal volcanic rocks from the Shuangyingshan-Huaniushan unit in the north Huitongshan-Zhangfangshan ophiolitic belt in the SBOB. The Zhangfangshan granodiorites (LA-ICP-MS, Ca. 288 Ma) are A2-type granite enriched in Rb, Th, Pb and LREEs and depleted in Nb, Ta, Ti, Sr, Ba and HREEs. They have varying MgO and TFe2O3 contents with high Mg# (38.56~48.97) values; the Lu/Yb ratios (0.14~0.15) of these granodiorites are similar to mantle-derived magma. A clear plagioclase zoning structure and acicular apatite occur in mineral assemblages derived from magma mixing between mafic and felsic magmas. The Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks (272 Ma) consist of rhyolite and basaltic andesite. Baishantang rhyolites are A2-type felsic rock enriched in Rb, Th, Pb and LREEs and depleted in Nb, Ta, Ti, Sr, Ba and HREEs, with negative εNd(t) and εHf(t) (−5.2~−4.8 and −2.2~−1.9, respectively). Rhyolites originated from the partial melting of the crust, influenced by mantle material. Basaltic andesites belong to calc-alkaline series and have an enrichment of Rb, Ba, Th, U, Pb and LREEs, are weakly enriched in Zr-Hf, and are depleted in Nb, Ta, Ti and HREEs. The Nd-Hf isotopes of these basaltic andesites are not coupled with negative εNd(t) (−2.8~−0.4) and positive εHf(t) (1.8~5.5) values. These characteristics indicate that they originated from the partial melting of the mantle mixed with sediment-derived melts. In combination with previous studies, our findings show that the early Permian Zhangfangshan granodiorites and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks formed in a post-collision extensional setting, and the Huitongshan-Zhangfangshan ocean had been closed before early Permian.

1. Introduction

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), is the largest Phanerozoic accretionary orogenic belt in the world, situated between the European, Sibrian, Tarim and North China cratons (Figure 1a) [1,2,3,4,5]. The CAOB evolved from the Neoproterozoic to the late Paleozoic–early Mesozoic through multiple accretion of arc/back-arc systems, ophiolites and microcontinental fragments during the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO) [5,6,7,8]. Voluminous magmatic and metamorphic rocks are widely exposed in CAOB and associated with accretionary, intra-continental, collisional and post-collisional processes [9,10,11,12,13,14], and the reference therein. These magmatic and metamorphic rocks provide good clues for the study of the closure time of PAO and evolution process of orogenic belt.
The Beishan Orogenic Belt (BOB), located in the southern margin of the CAOB, is an important part of the CAOB (Figure 1). It is a key area in the study of the tectonic evolution of the southern CAOB and the closure time of the PAO [15]. Four magmatic events occurred in the BOB [16]: Mesoproterozoic magmatic events representing the formation of an ancient basement in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt (SBOB) [17,18]; Neoproterozoic magmatism which represents the reworked ancient crust during the evolution of the Rodinia supercontinent [19,20]; Cambrian-Silurian arc magmatism related to the subduction of the Beishan ocean/PAO [21,22,23]; Ordovician–early late Paleozoic magmatic events correlating with the opening and closure of the branch of PAO [16,24], and the reference therein. Although a large number of late Paleozoic igneous rocks are distributed in the SBOB (Figure 1b), the formation environment of these magmatic rocks is still controversial (subduction, syn-collision or post collision) [12,13,14,25,26,27,28,29,30], which hampers the understanding of the final closure time of the PAO [12,13,14,25,26,27,28,29,30] and the tectonic evolution of the SBOB. The study of Carboniferous-Permian magmatism, especially magmatic rocks intruded into the ophiolites, provides an ideal target to investigate the late Paleozoic tectonic evolution of the SBOB and the final closure time of the PAO.
In this paper, we focus on the early Permian Zhangfangshan granodiorite intruded into the Zhangfangshan ophiolites and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks in the SBOB (Figure 1b) using zircon U-Pb isotopic dating, whole-rock major oxides, trace elements and Nd-Hf isotopic analysis in order to discuss their petrogenesis and the implications for the closure time of PAO and the tectonic evolution of the SBOB.
Minerals 13 01468 g001
Figure 1. (a) Simplified tectonic map of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt showing the location of the Beishan Orogenic Belt (BOB) (modified after [31]). (b) Simplified geological map of the BOB (modified after [17]). (b) Early Permian magmatism in the SBOB (age data are taken from [13,26,32,33,34,35,36,37]). (1): Hongshishan ophiolitic belt; (2): Jijitaizi-Xiaohuangshan ophiolitic belt; (3): Hongliuhe-Niujuanzi-Yueyashan ophiolitic belt; (4): Huitongshan-Zhangfangshan ophiolitic belt; Unit 1: Queershan unit; Unit 2: Heiyingshan-Hanshan unit; Unit 3: Mazongshan unit; Unit 4: Shuangyingshan-Huaniushan unit; Unit 5: Shibanshan unit.
Figure 1. (a) Simplified tectonic map of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt showing the location of the Beishan Orogenic Belt (BOB) (modified after [31]). (b) Simplified geological map of the BOB (modified after [17]). (b) Early Permian magmatism in the SBOB (age data are taken from [13,26,32,33,34,35,36,37]). (1): Hongshishan ophiolitic belt; (2): Jijitaizi-Xiaohuangshan ophiolitic belt; (3): Hongliuhe-Niujuanzi-Yueyashan ophiolitic belt; (4): Huitongshan-Zhangfangshan ophiolitic belt; Unit 1: Queershan unit; Unit 2: Heiyingshan-Hanshan unit; Unit 3: Mazongshan unit; Unit 4: Shuangyingshan-Huaniushan unit; Unit 5: Shibanshan unit.
Minerals 13 01468 g001

2. Geological Setting

The BOB is located at the southern margin of the CAOB and juxtaposed against the Dunhuang block to the south [15,17,30]. From north to south, there are four important ophiolite belts in the BOB, namely, Hongshishan, Jijitaizi-Xiaohuangshan, Hongliuhe-Niujuanzi-Yueyashan (HNY) and Huitongshan-Zhangfangshan (HZ) ophiolitic belts (Figure 1b) [30,38,39,40,41]. The BOB is sub-divided into Queershan, Heiyingshan-Hanshan, Mazongshan, Shuangyingshan-Huaniushan (SH) and Shibanshan units from north to south by these ophiolitic belts (Figure 1b) [15].
The study regions are located at the SH unit bounded by the HNY ophiolitic belt to the north and the HZ ophiolitic belt to the south. Neoproterozoic–late Paleozoic strata and intrusive rocks are widely exposed in this unit. Neoproterozoic-Cambrian strata are mainly composed of metasedimentary-sedimentary rocks [42]. Ordovician-Devonian strata are characterized by volcano-sedimentary formations. Carboniferous clastic and carbonate strata are sparsely distributed in this unit. Permian clastic and volcanic rocks are mainly exposed on the southern margin of the SH unit [43,44].
The Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks crop out in the east of the SH unit. The Zhangfangshan granodiorite is located in the north of the Zhangfangshan ophiolitic belt and west of the Baishantang area, intruded into the Ordovician-Silurian strata, ophiolites and Carboniferous strata while making unconformable contact with Jurassic strata (Figure 2a and Figure 3a,b).
The Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks are exposed in the volcanic section in Ganquan Formation. The Ganquan Formation is exposed in the south of the Hongliuyuan Formation and separated from it by faults (Figure 2b). The Ganquan Formation can be divided into marble and volcanic sections. The marble section is mainly composed of marble with rhyolite, phyllite, mica quartz schist and metabasaltic and is separated from the volcanic section by a fault to the south. The volcanic section is mainly composed of rhyolite and basaltic andesite, with a small amount of rhyolitic and basaltic andesite pyroclastic rocks. Rhyolites have larger distribution areas than the basaltic andesites, and they are interbedded to form bimodal volcanic rocks (Figure 2c and Figure 3g,h). Due to intense weathering, only few complete rhyolite and basaltic andesite outcrops can be seen in the study area.

3. Sample Description

3.1. Zhangfangshan Granodiorite

The granodiorite is grayish white, medium- to coarse-grained and massive structure. Its mineral composition includes plagioclase (40~45 vol%), quartz (35~40 vol%), biotite (10~15 vol%) and hornblende (5~10 vol%). Accessory minerals include apatite, zircon and others (Figure 3d–f). One sample was collected for zircon U-Pb dating, and six samples were collected for the whole-rock major oxides and trace elements study.

3.2. Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks

The rhyolite is light red to light pink in color, massive and porphyritic in texture, with up to 20 vol% phenocrysts, mainly comprising plagioclase and a minor amount of quartz (Figure 3k,l). The directional arrangement of phenocrysts can be observed in Figure 3k,l. The groundmass is usually a fine-grained assemblage of feldspar, quartz and minor Fe-Ti oxides. Plagioclase has a certain degree of kaolinization and epidotization.
The basaltic andesite is dark grey with a typical porphyritic texture (Figure 3i,j). The phenocrysts are mainly plagioclase (~15 vol%), while the matrix consists of plagioclase microcrystals and accessory minerals. Plagioclase has a certain degree of kaolinization and epidotization. One rhyolite was collected for zircon U-Pb dating; six rhyolite samples and five basaltic andesite samples were collected for whole-rock major oxides and trace elements study. Three rhyolite samples and three basaltic andesite samples were collected for the whole rock Nd-Hf isotopes analysis.

4. Analytical Methods

4.1. Zircon U-Pb Dating

Zircon cathodoluminescence (CL) images of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang rhyolite were taken at the Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources of Western China, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, China, and Langfang Chenxin Geological Service Co., Hebei, China, respectively. After separation using the conventional heavy liquid and magnetic techniques, zircon grains were purified through hand-picking under a binocular microscope, embedded in an epoxy and then polished to expose half of the zircon grains [47]. The zircon grains with internal ring structures, no clear inclusions and few fractures in the CL were chosen for U-Pb dating. Zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb isotope analyses were performed at the Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources of Western China, Lanzhou University, using ICP-MS Agilent 7500a (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The zircon standard 91500 [48] was used as the age reference. The glass NIST 610 and Si were used as an internal standard for Pb, Th and U [49]. The Glitter (ver. 4.0) [50] and Isoplot R [51] programs were employed to process the data. The analytical procedures are described in detail by Yuan et al. [52].

4.2. Whole-Rock Major Oxides and Trace Elements Analyses

All analyses of major oxides and trace elements for the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks were carried out at the Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources of Western China, Lanzhou University. Major oxides were determined through ICP optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) (manufactured by Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) using a Leeman Prodigy system with analytical precision greater than 2%. Loss on ignition (LOI) was obtained by heating approximately 0.5 g of the dried-sample powder at 1000 °C for 2 h. Trace elements were determined through inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) using an Agilent 7700× system. The relative standard deviation was less than 10% for the determination of trace elements, including rare earth elements (REEs). The US Geological Survey reference materials AGV-2 and BCR-2 were used as standards. Analytical procedures of major oxides and trace elements have been described by Li et al. [53] and Gao et al. [54], respectively.

4.3. Whole-Rock Nd-Hf Isotope Analyses

Sm-Nd and Lu-Hf isotopic analyses were performed on Nu Instruments Nu Plasma II MC-ICP-MS (Nu Instrument, Wrexham, Wales, UK) at the Key Laboratory of Mineral Resources of Western China, Lanzhou University. The US Geological Survey reference materials BCR-2 and AGV-2 were used as standards. JNDI and Alfa Hf standard solution were periodically analyzed to correct instrumental drift. Mass fractionation corrections for Nd and Hf isotopic ratios were based on 0.7219 for 146Nd/144Nd and 0.7325 for 179Hf/177Hf, respectively. Standard BCR-2 yielded average values of 0.512642 ± 0.00003 (2σ, n = 5) for 143Nd/144Nd and 0.282871 ± 0.00004 (2σ, n = 2) for 176Hf/177Hf. Standard AGV-2 yielded 0.512742 ± 0.00003 (2σ, n = 5) for 143Nd/144Nd and 0.282950 ± 0.00004 (2σ, n = 1) for 176Hf/177Hf. Analytical procedures were described by Bao et al. [55].

5. Analytical Results

The zircon U-Pb isotopic data, whole-rock major oxides, trace element data and Nd-Hf isotopic data are listed in Supplementary Table S1, Table S2 and Table S3, respectively.

5.1. Zircon U-Pb Geochronology

Fifteen zircons from the granodiorite samples are euhedral to subhedral and columnar in shape, with length-to-width ratios of 2:1~3:1. The zircons display well-preserved concentric oscillatory zoning (Figure 4a) and high Th/U ratios (0.44~0.65) (Table S1), indicating a typical magmatic origin [56]. All fifteen analyses yielded similar apparent 206Pb/238U ages of 297~284 Ma, with a weighted mean age of 288.7 ± 1.7 Ma (MSWD = 1.1, n = 15) (Figure 5a).
Eighteen zircons from the Baishantang rhyolite are euhedral to subhedral and display well-preserved concentric oscillatory zoning (Figure 4b). Their Th/U ratios are 0.46~1.30 (Table S1), indicating a typical magmatic origin. Sixteen analyses yield close apparent 206Pb/238U ages of 271~273 Ma and a concordant age of 272.3 ± 1.6 Ma (MSWD = 0.13, n = 16) (Figure 5b). The other two analyses yield old 206Pb/238U ages (both of GQ-LW-03 and GQ-LW-07 are 395 Ma) (Table S1).

5.2. Whole-Rock Major Oxides and Trace Elements

5.2.1. The Zhangfangshan Granodiorite

The composition of major oxides is as follows: SiO2 (64.78~69.21 wt.%), Al2O3 (13.55~14.58 wt.%), TFe2O3 (2.04~3.47 wt.%), MgO (0.65~1.68 wt.%), Na2O (3.92~7.22 wt.%), K2O (3.20~4.03 wt.%) and TiO2 (0.33~0.40 wt.%). The Na2O + K2O values are 7.12~10.74 wt.%, Mg# values are 38.56~48.97 and A/CNK ratios are less than 1 (0.62~0.90). The samples’ plots are in the granite field and are high-K calc-alkaline series and metaluminous (Figure 6). Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of Zhangfangshan granodiorites (Figure 7a) show a weakly fractionated REE pattern ((La/Yb)N = 3.39~5.27), enrichments of LREEs (LREE/HREE = 4.08~6.14) and negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.27~0.48). Primitive mantle-normalized trace elements’ patterns (Figure 7b) show enrichments of Rb, Th and Pb; weak enrichments of Zr and Hf; and a depletion of Nb, Ta, Ti, Sr and Ba.

5.2.2. Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks

Baishantang rhyolites have high SiO2 (75.12~75.87 wt.%), Na2O (4.00~4.07 wt.%), K2O (4.21~4.41 wt.%) and Na2O + K2O (8.21~8.48 wt.%) contents; moderate Al2O3 (13.14~13.53 wt.%) contents; and low TFe2O3 (1.41~1.74 wt.%), MgO (0.26~0.37 wt.%) and TiO2 (0.13~0.14 wt.%) contents; their Mg# values are 23.72~33.58. In the TAS diagram (Figure 6a), all samples are plotted in the rhyolite field in the TAS diagram (Figure 6a) and belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series in the K2O-SiO2 diagram (Figure 6b). The A/CNK ratios of all rhyolites are 1.04~1.09 and plotted in the peraluminous (Figure 6c). Rhyolite samples display LREE-enriched REE patterns ((La/Yb)N = 5.18~6.28, LREEs/HREEs = 5.71~6.55) and have obvious negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.48~0.52) (Figure 7a). They are enriched in Rb, Th and Pb; depleted in HREEs and Ba, Nb, Ta, Ti and Sr; and weakly depleted in Zr and Hf (Figure 7b).
Baishantang basaltic andesites have moderate SiO2 (54.66~63.14 wt.%) contents; high Al2O3 (14.36~16.13 wt.%), MgO (3.47~4.26 wt.%), Na2O (3.25~4.32 wt.%), TFe2O3 (7.97~10.71 wt.%) and TiO2 (1.28~1.87 wt.%) contents; and low P2O5 (0.40~0.55 wt.%) and K2O (1.26~1.59 wt.%) contents. The Mg# values are 44.08~46.30, and the Na2O + K2O values are 4.63~5.58 wt.%. The samples belong to calc-alkaline series (Figure 6b). Basaltic andesite samples display LREE-enriched REE patterns ((La/Yb)N = 3.85~6.49, LREEs/HREEs = 4.09~6.06) and have no obvious negative Eu anomalies (δEu = 0.92~0.99) (Figure 7a). They are enriched in Rb, Ba, Th, U and Pb; weakly enriched in Zr and Hf; and depleted in Nb, Ta and Ti (Figure 7b).

5.3. Whole-Rock Nd-Hf Isotope of the Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks

Whole-rock Nd-Hf isotopic compositions of Baishantang rocks are plotted in Figure 8. The initial Nd and Hf isotope ratios were calculated using the zircon U-Pb ages (272 Ma). The 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282674~0.282682 and 143Nd/144Nd ratios of 0.512252~0.512264 were measured for three rhyolite samples, which correspond to initial 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282542~0.282549 and initial 143Nd/144Nd ratios of 0.512023~0.512041. They had negative εHf(t) (−2.2~−1.9) and εNd(t) (−5.2~−4.8) values, with two-stage Hf and Nd model ages (TDM2) between 1427~1411 Ma and 1460~1433 Ma, respectively. The 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282721~0.282831 and 143Nd/144Nd ratios of 0.512381~0.512522 were measured for three basaltic andesite samples, which correspond to initial 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.282655~0.282760 and initial 143Nd/144Nd ratios of 0.512146~0.512205. Basalitic andesites have a negative εNd(t) (−2.8~−0.4) but positive εHf(t) (1.8~5.5).

6. Discussion

6.1. Early Permian Magmatism in the SBOB

In this research, we studied granodiorite and obtained new zircon U-Pb ages of 288.7 ± 1.7 Ma. Zircon grains from this pluton are euhedral-subhedral with clear concentric oscillatory patterns, without overgrowth rim and inherited cores (Figure 4a). Meanwhile, these zircons have relatively high Th/U ratios (0.44~0.65), indicative of a magmatic origin. In the field, the Zhangfangshan granodiorite intruded the Zhangfangshan ophiolite (362 Ma) [61], suggesting that the Zhangfangshan granodiorite was formed in the early Permian.
The Baishantang basaltic andesite and rhyolite are spatially associated with each other, and their SiO2 contents have obvious discontinuity, which clearly suggests that they are likely coeval and, thus, constitute a bimodal volcanic suit. The timing of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic magmatism can be determined by the eruption age of the rhyolite [62]. The basaltic andesite and rhyolite outcrops are in the volcanic section of the Ganquan Formation. The Ganquan Formation is widely distributed in the SBOB and consists of marble and volcanic sections. Through studies, it has been determined that the Ganquan Formation is in contact with the Upper Carboniferous Shibanshan and Lower Permian Shuangbaotang Formations [63]. The fossils in the marble section and the zircon U-Pb isotopic age in the volcanic section indicate that the Ganquan Formation was formed in the late Carboniferous–early Permian while the volcanic section was formed in the early Permian [63]. All the dated zircons in this study exhibit well-developed zoning and have relatively high Th/U ratios (0.46~1.30), indicative of a magmatic origin. Sixteen analyses yielded a concordant age of 272.3 ± 1.6 Ma; this result is consistent with the previous study and is interpreted as the crystallization age of the Baishantang rhyolite. 206Pb/207Pb ages of 395 Ma are yield by GQ-LW-3 and GQ-LW-7, clearly older than other ages, and represent the captured zircon ages. Therefore, the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks were formed in early Permian.
There are other early Permian magmatisms in the SBOB. Granitic plutons with an age of 290~270 Ma were reported in the Shuwojing, Western Shuwojing, Bandaoshan, Wohushan, Liuyuan and Yinwaxia, including syenogranite, biotite monzogranite, biotite granite, monzogranite and granodiorite [13,27,33,35]. Meanwhile, the ultramafic-mafic rocks and mafic-felsic dykes are also widely distributed in the SBOB, such as Podong, Cihai, Yitiaoshan, Gubaoquan, Yinwaxia and Niujuanzi [26,31,32,34,64,65,66]. These mafic-felsic rocks, combined with the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks studied in this paper, indicate that the early Permian magmatic activities are widespread in the SBOB.

6.2. Petrogensis

6.2.1. The Zhangfangshan Granodiorite

Generally, granites are categorized into I-, S-, A- and M-type granite based on geochemical and mineralogical features [67,68,69]. Early Permian granodiorites (Ca. 288 Ma) have high K2O contents (3.20~4.03 wt.%), unlike M-type granites with low K2O contents (<1 wt.%). Zhangfangshan granodiorites are metaluminous (A/CNK < 1.1), and Al-bearing minerals are lacking (e.g., garnet and andalusite), indicating that Zhangfangshan granodiorites are not S-type granites. Therefore, the Zhangfangshan granodiorites are I- or A-type granites. All granodiorite samples display high K2O + Na2O (7.12~10.74 wt.%) and FeOt contents (2.04~3.47 wt.%), low Rb contents (109.56~134.60 ppm), high 10,000*Ga/Al (2.8~3.3) and Zr + Nb + Ce + Y (368.17~544.83 ppm) values, demonstrating that the Zhangfangshan granodiorites show an affinity to A-type granites [69,70,71,72,73,74]. In the discrimination diagrams for I-S-A-type granite by Whalen et al. [70] (Figure 9a,b), all samples are plotted in the A-type granite field rather than the I and S-type field. A high calculated zircon saturation temperature is the most typical feature of A-type granite [59,75]. The calculated zircon saturation temperatures of Zhangfangshan granodiorite samples are 895~1004 °C [76], higher than the average temperatures of A- and I-type granites (Figure 9c). In summary, the studied granodiorites can be regarded as A-type granites. Based on different geochemical characteristics, A-type granites can be further divided into A1- and A2-type granites [77]. All samples have high Y/Nb (3.47~5.99), Rb/Nb (10.73~14.51) and Ce/Nb (5.99~8.36) ratios and are plotted within the A2 field in the Nb-Y-Ce diagram (Figure 9d). In conclusion, Zhangfangshan granodiorites are defined as A2-type granites.
Various models have been proposed to illustrate the formation of A-type granites, including the fractionation-crystallization process of mantle-derived alkaline magma [78,79], magma mixing between mafic and felsic magma, and partial melting of the lower continental crust caused by mantle magma underplating [71].
The Zhangfangshan granodiorites have high SiO2 (64.78~69.21 wt.%) and K2O (3.20~4.03 wt.%) contents, are enriched in LREEs and have a depletion of HFSEs as well as having negative Sr and Ti anomalies, indicating that the rocks are difficult to be formed by a high differentiation of mantle-derived magma [71]. The Y/Ho ratios (28.40~30.45) of granodiorites are close to those of chondrite (28), and the Zr/Hf ratios (34.7~38.9) of the samples belong to “CHARAC field (Zr/Hf ratios of 26~46)” [71], indicating that the fractional crystallization is limited. Meanwhile, if the felsic rocks were derived from the fractional crystallization of basaltic magma, voluminous mafic rocks should be exposed in the area [80]. However, there are no coeval intermediate-basic rocks exposed in the region. In conclusion, the Zhangfangshan granodiorites were not formed by the fractional crystallization of mantle-derived magmas.
The Ce/Pb (2.56~4.53) and La/Nb (2.60~3.61) values of granodiorites were found to be close to those of the crust (Ce/Pb < 15, La/Nb = 2.2) [81], indicating that the granodiorite had crustal affinity. However, samples also have high MgO contents and Mg# values (>40, average 46.58), including Na2O contents greater than or close to those of K2O. These features are different from those of melts formed by the partial melting of the basaltic lower crust. Meanwhile, the Lu/Yb ratios (0.14~0.15) of these samples are similar to the ratio of the mantle-derived magma (0.15), suggesting a contribution from the mantle. Zhanfangshan granodiorite formation is not solely derived from the partial melting of the lower crust, and the addition of high-Mg mantle-derived mafic magma is required. Due to the strong Quaternary cover, no mafic enclaves have been found in the Zhangfangshan pluton, but we can still find evidence of magma mixing: (a) the obvious zonal structure of plagioclase, the existence of acicular apatite, and the presence of felsic inclusion in plagioclase crystals. These petrological features are special mineral phenomena in rocks formed from magma mixing [82]. (b) Previous studies have suggested that increasing Fe + Mg contents would be expected due to the basification of relatively felsic magma [71]. Zhangfangshan granodiorites display a positive correlation of FeOt + MgO with TiO2 (Figure 10a). The samples also have variations in MgO and TFe2O3 contents, which favors magma mixing between mantle-derived mafic magma and crust-derived felsic melts [71,83]. (c) The Zhangfangshan granodiorite samples show magma-mixing trends in the 1/V-Rb/V diagram (Figure 10b). Therefore, potential magma mixing may occur in the Zhanfangshan granodiorite formation process.
Granodiorites have the characteristics of depletions of Ba, Eu, Sr, Ti, Nb and Ta and an obvious plagioclase ring structure, which indicate the crystallization differentiation of the granodiorite and fractionation of plagioclase and Ti-bearing phases.
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Figure 9. (a) (Na2O + K2O)/CaO and (b) Zr vs. 10,000*Ga/Al diagram [79]; (c) TZr (°C) vs. SiO2 diagram; (d) Nb-Y-Ce diagram [77]. I: I-type felsic rock; S: S-type felsic rock; A: A-type felsic rock; A1: A1-type felsic rock; A2: A2-type felsic rock; TZr (°C): zircon saturation temperature; average temperature of A and I- type granite after [84,73].
Figure 9. (a) (Na2O + K2O)/CaO and (b) Zr vs. 10,000*Ga/Al diagram [79]; (c) TZr (°C) vs. SiO2 diagram; (d) Nb-Y-Ce diagram [77]. I: I-type felsic rock; S: S-type felsic rock; A: A-type felsic rock; A1: A1-type felsic rock; A2: A2-type felsic rock; TZr (°C): zircon saturation temperature; average temperature of A and I- type granite after [84,73].
Minerals 13 01468 g009
Minerals 13 01468 g010
Figure 10. (a) TiO2 vs. FeOt + MgO diagram [82]; (b) 1/V vs. Rb/V diagram [85]; (c) (Th/Nb)PM vs. (La/Nb)PM diagram [86]; (d) Rb/Sr vs. SiO2 diagram [87]; (e) Ba/Th vs. (La/Sm)N diagram [88]; (f) 144Nd/143Nd(i) vs. Hf/Nd diagram [88]. C: crust; M: mantle; Cm: crust-mantle mixed; LC: lower crust; MC: middle crust; AOB: altered oceanic basalt; SM: sediment metasomatism.
Figure 10. (a) TiO2 vs. FeOt + MgO diagram [82]; (b) 1/V vs. Rb/V diagram [85]; (c) (Th/Nb)PM vs. (La/Nb)PM diagram [86]; (d) Rb/Sr vs. SiO2 diagram [87]; (e) Ba/Th vs. (La/Sm)N diagram [88]; (f) 144Nd/143Nd(i) vs. Hf/Nd diagram [88]. C: crust; M: mantle; Cm: crust-mantle mixed; LC: lower crust; MC: middle crust; AOB: altered oceanic basalt; SM: sediment metasomatism.
Minerals 13 01468 g010

6.2.2. The Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks

The Baishantang rhyolites have the characteristics of being weakly peraluminous (A/CNK are 1.04~1.09) and having no aluminum-rich minerals, indicating that the rhyolites are I- or A-type granites rather than S-type granites. Further, characteristics such as high 10,000*Ga/Al and FeOt/MgO values (2.60~2.73 and 3.53~5.73); low contents of MgO (0.26~0.37 wt.%) and CaO (0.53~0.82 wt.%); enrichment of Rb, Th and Pb; and depletion of Nb, Ta, Ti, Sr and Ba pertain to an A-type signature. Although the Zr + Nb + Ce + Y values (173.40~356.60 ppm and most of them are less than 350 ppm) are different from values of typical A-type granite (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y > 350 ppm), Baishantang rhyolites also have low Rb contents (154.00~163.50 ppm), high FeOt contents (1.27~1.57 wt.%) and zircon saturation temperatures (817~824 °C) (Figure 9c), which are different from I-type but similar to A-type felsic rocks. Meanwhile, the almost constant Rb/Sr values of rhyolites (2.13~2.26) show that the Baishantang rhyolites do not belong to highly fractionated felsic rock [89]. In the discrimination diagrams of I-S-A-type granite (Figure 9a,b), all samples are plotted in the A-type field. Therefore, Baishantang rhyoliltes are A-type felsic rocks. All of these samples have relatively high Y/Nb (2.58~2.69), Ce/Nb (4.87~5.59) and Rb/Nb (11.88~13.69) ratios [71], plotting into the A2 field in the Nb-Y-Ce diagram (Figure 9d). In conclusion, the Baishantang rhyolites are defined as A2-type felsic rocks.
As A2-type felsic rocks, the Baishantang rhyolites have high SiO2 and K2O contents, have low MgO contents and Mg# values, are enriched in LREEs, and are depleted in HFSEs, Sr and P. These characteristics indicate that rhyolites are difficult to form through the high differentiation of mantle-derived magma. The Y/Ho ratios (25.51~26.69) of the samples are close to those of chondrite, indicating that their fractional crystallization is limited [71]. Meanwhile, the exposed area of the rhyolite is much larger than that of the basaltic andesite. Therefore, the Baishantang rhyolite is probably derived from the partial melting of crustal or magma mixing rather than the crystallization differentiation of mantle-derived magma. A-type felsic rocks formed through magma mixing between crust- and mantle-derived magma generally exhibit a wide range of geochemical and isotopic compositions [83]. However, the samples have stable and high SiO2 contents and low MgO contents and Mg# values; the Cr (1.00~8.00 ppm) and Ni (1.20~4.40 ppm) contents are also obviously lower than those of mantle-derived magma (Cr = 300~500 ppm, Ni = 300~400 ppm) [60]. These features illustrate that the Baishantang rhyolite could not be formed through magma mixing. Although the samples show a positive correlation in the 1/V-Rb/V diagram (Figure 10b), the rhyolites have homogeneous and negative εNd(t) and εHf(t) values (Figure 8), and no special mineral phenomenon can be observed in the photomicrographs, implying that magma mixing is not the genesis of the rhyolites. The Ce/Pb (4.01~4.99), Lu/Yb (0.15~0.16), Nd/Th (1.94~2.14) and Nb/U (5.46~6.30) ratios of Baishantang rhyolites are different from those of mantle-derived magma but close to the average ratios of the crust (Ce/Pb < 15, 0.16 < Lu/Yb < 0.18, Nd/Th = 3, Nb/U = 9.7) [60,81], indicating that the rhyolite has crustal affinity. The Baishantang rhyolites have negative εNd(t) and εHf(t) values, and the two-stage model ages (TDM2) of Nd and Hf are 1460~1433 Ma and 1411~1427 Ma, which are larger than the crystallization age of rhyolites. Studies have shown that if the εNd(t) (εHf(t)) of intermediate-felsic rocks is negative, and the two-stage model age is much larger than its crystallization age, then the rocks originated from the partial melting of ancient crust, and the zircon age represents the reconstruction time of the crust [90,91,92]. There are Mesoproterozoic crustal materials in the SBOB, such as the Jiujing biotite plagioclase gneiss (1408 ± 4 Ma) [18] and the Gubaoquan paragneiss (detrital zircon age ~1.4 Ga) [93]. The two-stage model ages of the rhyolites are consistent with the previous results, suggesting that the Baishantang rhyolite is related to the partial melting of ancient continental crust [94]. The rhyolite samples show depletions in Eu, Ba, Nb, Ta, Sr and Ti, which could be due to the fractionation of plagioclase and Ti-bearing phases [26].
The Baishantang basaltic andesite has high contents of MgO, Al2O3, Na2O, TFe2O3 and TiO2, has low contents of P2O5 and K2O, and belongs to the calc-alkaline series (Figure 6b). These high Mg# values (44.08~46.30) are in contrast to the magma produced through partial melting of the basic lower crust (in which the Mg# value is lower than 45). The Lu/Yb ratios (0.15) are similar to the mantle value (Lu/Yb = 0.15) [60], indicating the mantle’s origin. However, these rocks display low Ce/Pb ratios (4.51~8.75) and Nd/Th ratios (3.33~6.95), which are close to the values of the continental crust (Ce/Pb < 15, Nd/Th ≈ 3) [95], and they are depleted in HFSEs (Nb, Ta, Ti) while being enriched in LILEs (Rb, Ba, Th, U and Pb), implying the influence of crustal material on magma. The Nb/Ta and high (Th/Nb)PM ratios are considered to be important parameters for crustal contamination [96,97]. The (Th/Nb)PM values of these samples are 3.78~6.47, larger than 1 [98], and the Nb/Ta values (14.15~14.56) for basaltic andesites are between those of the mantle (17.5 ± 2.5) and the crust (11.4) [60,92]. Meanwhile, all basaltic andesites have extremely heterogeneous isotopic signatures (Figure 8) and are plotted along the mantle-derived magma contaminated by the continental crust trend as shown in the (La/Nb)PM–(Th/Nb)PM and Rb/Sr-SiO2 diagrams (Figure 10c,d). All these features indicate that the magmas were modified by crustal materials during magma emplacement. Baishantang basaltic andesites have negative εNd(t) but positive εHf(t) values, which seems to indicate an opposite mantle source region (enriched mantle for εNd(t) but depleted mantle for εHf(t)). According to the formula for the crust Nd-Hf isotope (εHf(t) = 1.34 × εNd(t) + 2.82) [98], the actual εHf(t) values are obviously larger than the values coupled with the whole rock (−0.93~2.28), and Nd-Hf isotopes are decoupled. Several mechanisms that can lead to Nd-Hf isotopic decoupling: (1) deeply subducted oceanic basalt [99]; (2) the lower crust that has undergone an ancient anataxis with residual phases of garnet and zircon may be an optional reservoir [88,100,101]; (3) mixing of components with different geochemical features [88,102,103,104]. The magmatic rock formed by the melting of basaltic crust has lower Mg# (Mg# < 45) values [105] and obvious differentiation between MREE and HREE during anatexis [102]. The features of Baishantang basaltic andesites, such as high Mg# values and weak differentiation between MREEs and HREEs ((Dy/Yb)N = 1.28~1.40), contradict the idea that decoupling was caused by deeply subducted ocean basalt or the lower crust undergoing an ancient anatexis event. Nd-Hf isotopic decoupling may result from the mixing of components with different geochemical features. As discussed above, the crustal material played an important role in the basaltic andesite formation (Figure 10c,d). Basaltic andesites have high (La/Sm)N ratios and low Ba/Th values (Figure 10e), which are thought to reflect sediment involvement. The influence of sediments on magma can be classified as sediment-derived melt mixing and physical mixing. The (143Nd/144Nd)–(Hf/Nd) diagram (Figure 10f) can distinguish between these two models [106]. All samples are distributed along an oblique line rather than a horizontal line (Figure 10f), indicating that sediment-derived melt mixing, rather than physical mixing between sediments, and mantle-derived magma play an important role in basaltic andesites formation. The partial melting of the mantle mixed with sediment-derived melts or bulk subducted sediments could generate magmas with Nd-Hf isotopic decoupling [88]. Therefore, the Nd-Hf isotopic decoupling of basaltic andesite is a result of the mixing of sediment-derived melts and mantle magma.
The Dy/Yb values of basaltic andesites are 1.92~2.09. These values are between the spinel lherzolite mantle melts (<1.5) and garnet lherzolite mantle melts (>2.5), indicating that the magma comes from the partial melting of the two [107]. The transformation depth of the spinel and garnet is 70~80 km [108], and it is speculated that the formation depth of basaltic andesite magma is about 70~80 km.

6.3. Tectonic Implications

The late Paleozoic tectonic setting of the SBOB and the closure time of the PAO are the focus of this research. Paleozoic magmatic rocks are widely distributed in the SBOB, which record the subduction, closure and post-collision evolution history of the PAO. The Xiaoquandong 395 Ma A-type granite and Hongliuhe 404 Ma A-type granite intruded into the Hongliuhe ophiolite in the SH unit, indicating that the HNY ocean closed before the early Devonian [44,109,110]. Magmatism in the SH and Shibanshan units after early Devonian indicate the evolution process of the back-arc basin represented by the HZ ophiolitic belt [44]. Late Devonian–early Carboniferous arc magmatism occurred in the Tanshanzidong, Huaniushan and Shuangfengshan in the SH unit [44], but it did not occur in the Shibanshan unit, indicating the northward subduction of the HZ ocean during this time [94].
Late Carboniferous to early Permian magmatic rocks are widely distributed in the Shibanshan and SH units, constituting the main magmatic events during the late Paleozoic. Qiaowan 304 Ma granite [27], Liuyuan and Shuwojing 285~275 Ma granite [12,13] and Yinwaxia 273 Ma rhyolite [111], and other acidic rocks, are the main types of late Carboniferous–early Permian magmatic rocks in the SBOB. These rocks have the geochemical characteristics of calc-alkaline to high K calc-alkaline and belong to highly differentiated I- or A-type felsic rocks. Except for these felsic rocks, the Podong, Cihai and Niujuanzi 282~280 Ma tholeiite-Calc-alkaline series diabase and other mafic rocks are also widely distributed in the SBOB [64,65,66]. These felsic and mafic rocks were formed in the extensional tectonic setting [12,13,64,65,66,111]. The A1-type felsic rocks were formed in the non-orogenic but the A2-type in syn-collision or post-collision tectonic environments [77]. The Zhangfangshan granodiorite and Baishantang rhyolite are A2-type felsic rocks, and all samples are plotted in the POG field in the Nb-Y and Ta-Yb diagrams (Figure 11a,b), suggesting the post-collision tectonic setting. Baishantang basaltic andesites have high Zr (180~258 ppm) concentrations and Zr/Y (5.37~6.53) ratios, similar to basalts formed in the within-plate extensional setting (Zr > 70 ppm and Zr/Y > 3) [112]. All basaltic andesite samples are plotted in the WPB field in the Zr/Y-Zr and Ti-Zr diagrams (Figure 11c,d), suggesting a within-plate extensional environment. The formation age and tectonic setting of the granodiorites and the bimodal volcanic rocks in this study are similar to late Carboniferous–early Permian magmatic rocks, showing that the late Carboniferous–early Permian magmatism in the SBOB were formed in the same tectonic environment. Meanwhile, intermediate-basic dikes in 282~280 Ma are widely distributed in the SBOB, indicating an extensional tectonic background caused by lithospheric delamination [25,26]. Based on the regional stratigraphic, the late Carboniferous to early middle Permian in the SBOB is a continuous transgressive sedimentary sequence, and there is no unconformity interface reflecting the continental crust of the SBOB, which was further stretched on the basis of a post-collisional extension in the late Carboniferous [63,113,114,115]. Therefore, combined with magmatism and stratigraphic characteristics in the SBOB, the HZ ocean has been closed, and the SBOB was in a post-collisional extensional setting during early Permian (Figure 12).

7. Conclusions

A petrographic, geochronological, whole-rock major-oxides, trace-element and Nd-Hf isotopic study of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks in the SBOB led to the following conclusions.
  • The Zhangfangshan granodiorites have 206Pb/238U ages of 288.7 ± 1.7 Ma, and the Baishantang rhyolites have 206Pb/238U ages of 272.3 ± 1.6 Ma.
  • The Zhangfangshan granodiorite belong to the A2-type granite and are generated from magma mixing between mafic and felsic magmas.
  • The Baishantang rhyolites belong to the A2-type granite and are generated from the partial melting of crust. The Baishantang basaltic andesites belong to the calc-alkaline series, which originated from the partial melting of the mantle and mixing via sediment-derived melts.
  • The Zhangfangshan granodiorites and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks were formed in the post-collision extensional setting. The SBOB was in the post-collision period, and the HZ ocean was closed before the early Permian.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min13121468/s1, Table S1: Results of U-Pb dating using zircons from the Zhangfangshan granodiorites and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks; Table S2: Whole-rock major (wt.%) and trace-element (ppm) analyses of the Zhangfangshan granodiorites and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks; Table S3: Whole-rock Nd-Hf isotopic data of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks.

Author Contributions

Methodology, L.W., X.Z., E.W. and J.Z.; Investigation, L.W., E.W., W.C., G.S., F.Z. and H.W.; Resources, L.W.; Data curation, L.W., E.W., W.C., G.S., F.Z. and H.W.; Writing—original draft, L.W.; Writing—review and editing, X.Z., J.Z. and J.W.; Project administration, J.W.; Funding acquisition, X.Z. and J.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the China Atomic Energy Authority (CAEA) through the Geological Disposal Program and the National Second Expedition to the Tibetan Plateau (2019QZKK0901).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Conghui Xiong and Xiaoli Yan for their valuable help with the analysis, Honggang Zhao for his help on the field. We sincerely thank the editors and all reviewers for their valuable feedback that we have used to improve the quality of our manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Minerals 13 01468 g002
Figure 2. Geological maps of (a) the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and (b) the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks (after [45,46]); (c) profile of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks.
Figure 2. Geological maps of (a) the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and (b) the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks (after [45,46]); (c) profile of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks.
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Minerals 13 01468 g003
Figure 3. Field photos and photomicrographs of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. (a,b) Zhangfangshan granodiorite intruded into Zhangfangshan ophiolitic mélange (ZOM); (c) Photo of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite sample. Hornblende can be clearly seen in the rock; (d–f) Photomicrographs of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite. Tiny acicular apartite and zonal structure of plagioclase are detected (d,f). The mineral assemblages of granodiorite (e). Quartz crystal as inclusions occur in plagioclase (f); (g,h) Field photos of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. Rhyolite and basaltic andesite are interbedded (g), and the distribution area of rhyolite is larger than that of basaltic andesite (h); (i) Plane-polarized photograph of basaltic andesite; (j) Cross-polarized photograph of basaltic andesite, where epidotization occurs in plagioclase; (k) Plane-polarized photograph of rhyolite; (l) Cross-polarized photograph of rhyolite, where epidotization occurs in plagioclase. Ap: apatite; Hbl: hornblende; Bt: biotite; Pl: plagioclase; Qtz: quartz; Chl: chlorite; Ep: Epidote.
Figure 3. Field photos and photomicrographs of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. (a,b) Zhangfangshan granodiorite intruded into Zhangfangshan ophiolitic mélange (ZOM); (c) Photo of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite sample. Hornblende can be clearly seen in the rock; (d–f) Photomicrographs of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite. Tiny acicular apartite and zonal structure of plagioclase are detected (d,f). The mineral assemblages of granodiorite (e). Quartz crystal as inclusions occur in plagioclase (f); (g,h) Field photos of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. Rhyolite and basaltic andesite are interbedded (g), and the distribution area of rhyolite is larger than that of basaltic andesite (h); (i) Plane-polarized photograph of basaltic andesite; (j) Cross-polarized photograph of basaltic andesite, where epidotization occurs in plagioclase; (k) Plane-polarized photograph of rhyolite; (l) Cross-polarized photograph of rhyolite, where epidotization occurs in plagioclase. Ap: apatite; Hbl: hornblende; Bt: biotite; Pl: plagioclase; Qtz: quartz; Chl: chlorite; Ep: Epidote.
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Figure 4. Representative zircons cathodoluminescence images for zircons in the Zhangfangshan granodiorite (a) and the Baishantang rhyolite (b). Yellow and red numbers represent the U-Pb analytical sites of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang rhyolite, respectively.
Figure 4. Representative zircons cathodoluminescence images for zircons in the Zhangfangshan granodiorite (a) and the Baishantang rhyolite (b). Yellow and red numbers represent the U-Pb analytical sites of the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang rhyolite, respectively.
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Figure 5. U-Pb dating results of zircons for the Zhangfangshan granodiorite (a) and the Baishantang rhyolilte (b).
Figure 5. U-Pb dating results of zircons for the Zhangfangshan granodiorite (a) and the Baishantang rhyolilte (b).
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Figure 6. Geochemical classification diagrams for the Zhangfangshan granodiorites and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. (a) TAS diagram [57], (b) K2O versus SiO2 diagram [58], (c) A/NK versus A/CNK diagram [59].
Figure 6. Geochemical classification diagrams for the Zhangfangshan granodiorites and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. (a) TAS diagram [57], (b) K2O versus SiO2 diagram [58], (c) A/NK versus A/CNK diagram [59].
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Figure 7. Chondrite (C1)-normalized REE patterns (a) and Primitive Mantle (PM)-normalized multielement diagrams (b) for the Zhangfangshan granodiorites and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. C1 and PM values are from Sun and McDonough [60].
Figure 7. Chondrite (C1)-normalized REE patterns (a) and Primitive Mantle (PM)-normalized multielement diagrams (b) for the Zhangfangshan granodiorites and Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks. C1 and PM values are from Sun and McDonough [60].
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Figure 8. (a) εNd(t) values of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks; (b) εHf(t) values of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks.
Figure 8. (a) εNd(t) values of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks; (b) εHf(t) values of the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks.
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Figure 11. Tectonic setting discrimination diagrams for the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks: (a) Nb vs. Y diagram [116]; (b) Ta vs. Yb diagram [116]; (c) Zr/Y vs. Zr diagram [117]; (d) Ti vs. Zr diagram [117]. MORB: mid-ocean ridge basalt; IAB: island-arc basalt; WPB: within-plate basalt; VAG: volcanic arc granite; POG: post-orogenic granite; ORG: ocean ridge granite; WPG: within-plate granite; syn-COLG: syn-collisional granite.
Figure 11. Tectonic setting discrimination diagrams for the Zhangfangshan granodiorite and the Baishantang bimodal volcanic rocks: (a) Nb vs. Y diagram [116]; (b) Ta vs. Yb diagram [116]; (c) Zr/Y vs. Zr diagram [117]; (d) Ti vs. Zr diagram [117]. MORB: mid-ocean ridge basalt; IAB: island-arc basalt; WPB: within-plate basalt; VAG: volcanic arc granite; POG: post-orogenic granite; ORG: ocean ridge granite; WPG: within-plate granite; syn-COLG: syn-collisional granite.
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Figure 12. Schematic illustration of the proposed genetic model for the early Permian in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt.
Figure 12. Schematic illustration of the proposed genetic model for the early Permian in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt.
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Wu, L.; Zhai, X.; Wang, E.; Chen, W.; Song, G.; Zheng, F.; Zhao, J.; Wang, J.; Wang, H. Early Permian Post-Collision Extensional Setting in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt: Evidence from the Zhangfangshan Granodiorite and the Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks. Minerals 2023, 13, 1468. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121468

AMA Style

Wu L, Zhai X, Wang E, Chen W, Song G, Zheng F, Zhao J, Wang J, Wang H. Early Permian Post-Collision Extensional Setting in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt: Evidence from the Zhangfangshan Granodiorite and the Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks. Minerals. 2023; 13(12):1468. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121468

Chicago/Turabian Style

Wu, Lei, Xinwei Zhai, Erteng Wang, Wanfeng Chen, Gaorui Song, Feifei Zheng, Jiaolong Zhao, Jinrong Wang, and Haidong Wang. 2023. "Early Permian Post-Collision Extensional Setting in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt: Evidence from the Zhangfangshan Granodiorite and the Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks" Minerals 13, no. 12: 1468. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121468

APA Style

Wu, L., Zhai, X., Wang, E., Chen, W., Song, G., Zheng, F., Zhao, J., Wang, J., & Wang, H. (2023). Early Permian Post-Collision Extensional Setting in the Southern Beishan Orogenic Belt: Evidence from the Zhangfangshan Granodiorite and the Baishantang Bimodal Volcanic Rocks. Minerals, 13(12), 1468. https://doi.org/10.3390/min13121468

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