Farmers’ Knowledge About Potato Cultivation and Their Perception of Agricultural Extension in Disseminating Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Saudi Arabia

Abstract

The current study assesses farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs and production practices, healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds, and their perceptions of agricultural extension services. A stratified random sample of 262 potato farmers from Hail, Qassim, Tabuk, Riyadh, and Al-Jawf was selected according to the Yamane equation. The number of completed and validated questionnaires was 231. Findings revealed that the majority of respondents have strong knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop production practices, and the selection of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. Moreover, the majority of farmers agreed with the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural potato cultivation practices. Farmers’ age and education level significantly influenced their knowledge of selecting healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. Farming experience significantly influenced knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, crop inputs, production practices, and high-quality potato seeds. Monthly farm income and income from potato farms significantly influenced farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs, production practices, and healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed selection. Regarding agricultural extension services, education level, monthly farm income, and income from potato crops influenced farmers’ perceptions of their effectiveness in disseminating information about sustainable agricultural practices. Moreover, the findings of multiple regressions indicate that farmers’ income from potato farms affects their knowledge of land preparation and healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. Farming experience and income from potato farms significantly affect farmers’ knowledge of crop inputs and production practices. Education and monthly farm income affect farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services. The study emphasizes the need for educational programs, training, and workshops under the supervision of the Agricultural Extension Department to enhance farmers’ knowledge of sustainable potato cultivation practices. The government should provide subsidized advanced agricultural technologies in the study area, thereby enhancing crop production and livelihoods. Support from the government and the extension department would help reduce potato imports and the economic burden by improving local potato production.

1. Introduction

The global population is expected to grow by 2.1 billion from 8.2 billion in 2024 to 10.3 billion in 2084 [1]. This population transition demands a significant increase in global food production to meet the expected demand for adequate food supplies, thereby posing a major challenge to food security, the most pressing issue across the globe [2,3]. Consequently, it is imperative to encourage all nations in enhancing their productivity, particularly those such as Saudi Arabia, which face challenges in agriculture due to harsh climate conditions, geographic constraints, and limited water resources [4]. In this regard, food security is a top priority for Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030, which promotes the growth of agricultural food production by increasing the Kingdom’s production of goods with a high comparative advantage, decreasing losses and waste in supply chains, boosting productivity, and implementing sustainable production methods locally. Vision 2030 promotes the implementation of sustainable use of natural resources in the farming system by enhancing water efficiency and encouraging the application of innovative and sustainable agricultural technologies to increase agricultural yields without depleting natural resources [5].

Climate change and water scarcity are major challenges to crop production in Saudi Arabia. In response to these issues, the Saudi water sector designed a comprehensive water strategy and incorporated national-level guidelines, policies, regulations, and practices with the aim of addressing these major challenges [6].

Some crops, particularly potatoes, have been highlighted by various scholars [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14] as essential for household food security due to their increasing demand for both fresh and processed products. Potatoes rank as the fourth-largest crop consumed by humans after wheat, rice, and maize, attributed to their exceptional adaptability across diverse production environments. This adaptability, along with the rising popularity and demand for potatoes, underscores their significance in food security [7,15]. Despite Saudi Arabia’s severe weather and dry circumstances [16], potatoes are among the most important open-field vegetables and strategic crops [17], cultivated a significant percentage of total open-field vegetable area in the regions of Saudi Arabia, including Hail (56.22%), Qassim (43.47%), Tabuk (40.09%), Riyadh (33.34%), and Al-Jawf (14.42%) [18]. The Sustainable Agricultural Rural Development Program (Reef Saudi) has initiated an international training program to improve growers’ skills and knowledge. The program arranged field tours of specific agricultural fields and introduced growers to sustainable agricultural technology [19]. Reef Saudi provided significant financial support to farmers to enhance crop production [20]. Moreover, the Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA) has launched an online agricultural extension channel to educate farmers about crop production. These efforts from government institutions played a vital role in improving potato production [6].

Despite its vast adaptability, with domestic potato production reaching 621,750 tons while the amount available for consumption (production + imports − exports) was 715,930 tons, the Kingdom did not achieve self-sufficiency, at 86.84%, in 2023 [18]. In light of insufficient local production to meet consumer demand, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has resorted to importing potatoes and their derivatives, including fresh, seed, and frozen potatoes, potato chips, and potato starch, from international sources. In 2023, the Kingdom imported 425.43 thousand tons valued at $448.39 million (approximately 1.69 billion Riyals), accounting for 4.31% of total agricultural imports, valued at 39.25 billion Riyals [21].

Since 2021, potato productivity in the Kingdom (30.27 tons/hectare) has increased [22]. However, it is lower than the productivity of the same crop in Turkey, South Africa, France, Jordan, Germany, the Netherlands, Kuwait, Denmark, the United States, and New Zealand, at rates of 23.52%, 24.88%, 25.9%, 32.01%, 32.47%, 40.77%, 45.79%, 46.09%, 62.17%, and 68.02%, respectively, in 2022. This brings Saudi Arabia’s productivity closer to that of neighboring countries, particularly Jordan (39.96 tons/hectare) and Kuwait (44.13 tons/hectare). It is essential to acquire agricultural knowledge and implement new technologies, which are crucial to promoting sustainable potato farming practices, improving quality, increasing production, and protecting the environment [22]. Agricultural extension services play a role in promoting sustainable farming practices by disseminating knowledge, developing skills, transferring modern, environmentally friendly agricultural technologies, and supporting farmers [23,24,25]. Evidence can be found in research conducted by Hamilton and Hudson [26], Abass [27], and Sodiya et al. [28], which have demonstrated significant positive relationships between extension services and the adoption of technology, crop productivity, and welfare outcomes. Furthermore, we found that farmers who received extension services had higher incomes than their counterparts who did not participate [29].

Therefore, understanding the level of potato growers’ perceptions of extension services and their knowledge of potato production technology is essential for evaluating their readiness to adopt innovative methods on their farms as well as designing relevant extension initiatives. Therefore, this study is vital for the following reasons: (a) it will provide critical insights into the effectiveness of the current extension delivery system for potato cultivation in Saudi Arabia, where (b) numerous investigations have been carried out regarding general agricultural extension services in the Kingdom. Yet, there remains a lack of empirical studies specifically addressing the perceptions of potato growers towards these services and the correlation with their knowledge. These evidence-based recommendations, especially in the vegetables sector, will contribute to the Saudi Arabia Vision 2030 food security objectives. This makes this topic extremely important, as it would serve as a basis for various activities aimed at raising the knowledge and skills of potato farmers in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

This study is grounded in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and Human Capital Theory, positing that farmers’ knowledge of sustainable potato cultivation practices, disseminated through agricultural extension services, shapes their perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral intentions toward sustainable practice adoption [30,31]. Within this framework, knowledge is conceptualized as human capital that enhances farmers’ perceived usefulness and feasibility of sustainable practices, thereby mediating the pathway between awareness and behavioral change [32,33,34]. While the present study’s data are confined to knowledge levels and perceptions, this integrated conceptual framework establishes the theoretical basis for understanding how extension-mediated knowledge influences farmers’ orientations toward sustainable agricultural practices and provides a foundation for future empirical investigation of the relationships between knowledge, adoption behavior, and farm-level productivity outcomes [35]. This integrated conceptual framework assists in-depth analysis of knowledge and income status as determinant of farmers’ behavioral shift from conventional agricultural practices to sustainable eco-friendly practices. Therefore, the current study examined farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs and production practices, and healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds, as well as their perceptions of agricultural extension services.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study Area

The study was conducted in several regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, specifically those known for potato cultivation and production. These include the Hail region, where potato cultivation accounts for 56.22% of the total area of vegetables grown, followed by the Qassim region at 40.09%, Tabuk at 43.47%, Riyadh at 33.34%, and Al-Jawf at 14.42%. Potatoes are grown in open fields, and these regions collectively account for 98.8% of the Kingdom’s total potato production. Several factors contribute to variations in potato yield across different regions, including soil fertility, water quality, temperature, humidity, rainfall, and farmer experience [22].

2.2. Sampling and Data Collection

The study included all potato farmers in the following regions—Hail, Qassim, Tabuk, Riyadh, and Al-Jawf—totaling 822 potato growers (Hail region = 300; Riyadh region = 185; Qassim region = 137; Tabuk region = 100 and Al-Jawf = 100) [21]. A stratified random sample of 262 (32% of each region) potato farmers was selected using the Yamane equation [36], as shown in the following equation.

$$\mathit{n}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathit{N}}{1+\mathit{N}\left({\mathit{e}}^2\right)}}$$

where (n) represents the sample size, (N) represents the population size, and (e) represents the sampling error at the 0.05 level. The number of completed and validated questionnaires was 231, and the response rate was 88%.

A paper-based structured questionnaire was used for data collection from October to December 2025. The questionnaire used for the study consisted of several sections. The Section 1 consisted of the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, including age, education, main occupation, family members, farming experience, membership of agricultural cooperatives, access to loans, access to training, monthly farm income, and income from the potato crop. The Section 2 consisted of questions about farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting. The Section 3 consisted about farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices. The Section 4 consisted of questions about farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed. The Section 5 consisted of questions about farmers’ perceptions of the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable potato cultivation practices.

2.3. Research Instrument

Farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting was measured by using a five-point Likert scale (very low = 1; low = 2; moderate = 3; high = 4; very high = 5). Farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices was measured by using a five-point Likert scale (very low = 1; low = 2; moderate = 3; high = 4; very high = 5). Farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds was measured by using a five-point Likert scale (very low = 1; low = 2; moderate = 3; high = 4; very high = 5). Farmers’ perception of the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural and practices for potato cultivation were measured using a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1; disagree = 2; neutral = 3; agree = 4; strongly agree = 5). Please see Appendix A. The five-point Likert scale is a self-report scale with several limitations, including social desirability bias, subjective interpretation, memory and recall errors, biased response set, lack of insight, low predictive ability, and method variance. The five-point Likert scale was appropriately used because data collection was large in scale and the survey was completely anonymous; self-reports can be help obtain accurate responses.

2.4. Validity and Reliability

A pilot study was conducted to determine the content reliability, validity and internal consistency of the instrument. For this purpose, 30 farmers were selected from the study area before data collection, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated (0.82), which was acceptable for data collection.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, version 30) was used to analyze the collected data. Descriptive statistical analyses were run to calculate the frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation of the responses. Inferential statistical analysis, including a one-way ANOVA was used to measure differences in farmers’ knowledge and perceptions of the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices for potato cultivation based on socio-economic characteristics. Partial Eta Square was calculated to assess size differences between the means of the groups. It ranges from 0 to 1 (0.01 = small effect; 0.06 = medium effect; large effect ≥ 0.14). A post hoc LSD test was run to identify which specific pairs of group means differ significantly.

Multiple regression was used to identify the effects of socio-economic factors on farmers’ knowledge of land preparation, crop inputs, seed, and perception of extension services. The Durbin–Watson statistic measures the autocorrelation of residuals in a regression model and ranges from 0 to 4. The range of 1.5 to 2.5 is acceptable for the Durbin–Watson statistic.

3. Results

Table 1 showed that more than 80% of the respondents were between 41 and 57 years old. Only 15.2% of the respondents were over 57 years old. Regarding education, 38.5% of the respondents had primary-to-intermediate education. More than half of the respondents had a college education and only 7.8% had a university education. More than four-fifths of the respondents were mainly occupied in agriculture, whereas less than 20% were occupied other than agriculture. The majority of the respondents’ family members did not contribute to agriculture. Only 30.7% of the family members contributed to agriculture. The majority of the respondents (84%) had farming experience ranging from less than 16 years to less than 32 years. Only a small number of the respondents (16%) had more than 32 years of farming experience. More than 70% of the respondents were not members of agricultural cooperatives. Only 24% of the respondents had a membership in an agricultural cooperative. The majority of the respondents (79.2%) did not obtain loans for agricultural purposes. Around 21% of the respondents obtained loans. Around 67% of the respondents had no access to training. Only 33.3% of the respondents had access to training. More than half of the respondents’ monthly farm income was less than 2700 USD and not more than 5300 USD. The remaining respondents’ income was more than 5300 USD. More than three-fourths of the respondents earned less than 2700 USD and not more than 5300 USD from potato crops. Only 24% of the respondents earned more than 5300 USD from potato crops.

Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents.

Variables	Frequency	Percent
Age
Less than 41 years old	99	42.8
41 to less than 57 years old	97	42
More than 57 years	35	15.2
Educational level
Primary	32	13.8
Secondary	33	14.3
Intermediate	24	10.4
College	124	53.7
University	18	7.8
Main occupation
Yes	46	19.9
No	185	80.1
Family member contribution to agriculture
Yes	71	30.7
No	160	69.3
Years of experience in agriculture
Less than 16 years	119	51.5
16 to less than 32 years	75	32.5
More than 32 years	37	16
Membership in agricultural cooperatives
Yes	60	26
No	171	74
Obtaining loans
Yes	48	20.8
No	183	79.2
Access to training
Yes	77	33.3
No	154	66.7
Monthly income
Less than 2700 USD	21	9.1
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	20	8.7
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	77	33.3
More than 5300 USD	113	48.9
Monthly income from potato crops
Less than 2700 USD	45	19.5
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	46	19.9
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	85	36.8
More than 5300 USD	55	23.8

Table 2 shows farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting. The analysis findings are arranged by mean score, ranging from 3.84 to 3.31. The statement “choosing the right time for potato planting” ranked first, with a mean value of 3.84. Whereas the statement “I am aware of the importance of soil analysis before planting” ranked last, with a mean value of 3.31.

Table 2. Farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting.

Farmers’ Knowledge	Very Low	Low	Moderate	High	Very High	Mean	SD	Rank
	%	%	%	%	%
Right time for potato planting.	4.3	10.4	17.3	32.5	35.5	3.84	1.15	1st
Plowing the farmland thoroughly before planting.	4.8	10	17.7	37.7	29.8	3.78	1.12	2nd
Plowing the soil to a suitable depth.	6.1	10.4	19.9	28.5	35.1	3.76	1.21	3rd
Ensuring good soil leveling.	5.6	8.2	26	29	31.2	3.72	1.15	4th
Clean the soil from crop residues.	6.5	11.3	17.7	34.6	29.9	3.70	1.19	5th
Maintain appropriate planting distances.	5.6	13	20.3	32	29	3.66	1.19	6th
Ensure the field receives ample sunlight.	5.6	11.7	23.4	30.7	28.6	3.65	1.17	7th
Crop rotation by planting other crops between plantings.	6.5	14.7	22.1	28.1	28.6	3.58	1.23	8th
Improve irrigation drainage using suitable methods.	7.8	14.7	20.3	29.9	27.3	3.54	1.25	9th
Soil analysis before planting.	9.5	18.6	21.6	32	18.2	3.31	1.24	10th

Table 3 shows that more than three-fifths of the respondents have high knowledge of land preparation for potato planting. Whereas nearly 40% of the respondents have low to moderate knowledge.

Table 3. Overall farmers’ knowledge level about land preparation for potato planting.

Knowledge	Frequency	Percentage	Mean
Low	28	12.1	2.48
Moderate	64	27.7
High	139	60.2

Table 4 shows farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices. The analysis findings are arranged by mean score, ranging from 3.65 to 3.26. The statement “the optimal time for harvesting potatoes” ranked first, with a mean value of 3.65. Whereas the statement “understanding the environmental impact of excessive fertilizer use” ranked last, with a mean value of 3.26.

Table 4. Farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices.

Farmers’ Knowledge	Very Low	Low	Moderate	High	Very High	Mean	SD	Rank
	%	%	%	%	%
The optimal time for harvesting potatoes.	6.9	10.4	21.6	32.5	28.6	3.65	1.19	1st
The critical importance of using potato seeds from certified sources.	7.4	11.7	20.8	33.3	26.8	3.61	1.21	2nd
Post-harvest handling of potatoes.	8.7	13	22.5	32.5	23.4	3.49	1.23	3rd
Different types of fertilizers are suitable for potatoes.	8.7	11.7	25.5	35.1	19	3.44	1.18	4th
Adequate irrigation on time required for potato cultivation.	7.4	13.9	29.4	27.7	21.6	3.42	1.18	5th
Use of recommended pesticide.	10	13.9	21.6	33.3	21.2	3.42	1.24	5th
Recommended fertilizers are required for potato cultivation.	8.7	14.3	22.9	35.1	19	3.42	1.20	5th
Use of pesticides, herbicides and fungicides on recommended time reduces pests and diseases.	8.2	18.2	19.5	33.3	20.8	3.40	1.23	6th
The suggested crop nutrients should apply	11.3	14.7	21.6	31.2	21.2	3.36	1.28	7th
Market demands of the different potato varieties.	11.3	13	25.5	31.2	19	3.34	1.24	8th
Identifying nutrient deficiencies in potato cultivation by observing symptoms	10	14.3	26.4	31.6	17.7	3.33	1.21	9th
The importance of maintaining a farm record of fertilizer and pesticide use on the potato farm.	10.4	15.6	26.4	30.7	16.9	3.28	1.22	10th
Appropriate pesticide dosages for pests and diseases affecting potatoes.	10.4	19.5	20.8	30.7	18.6	3.28	1.26	10th
Understanding the environmental impact of excessive fertilizer use.	11.3	16.5	24.7	30.3	17.3	3.26	1.24	11th

Table 5 shows that more than half of the respondents have a high level of knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices. Whereas 46% of the respondents have low to moderate knowledge of potato crop production practices.

Table 5. Overall farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices.

Knowledge	Frequency	Percentage	Mean
Low	37	16	2.35
Moderate	69	29.9
High	125	54.1

Table 6 shows farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. The analysis findings are arranged by mean score, ranging from 3.59 to 3.35. The statement “rely on trusted sources to purchase potato seeds” ranked first, with a mean value of 3.59. The statement “I compare different potato varieties before purchasing” ranked last, with a mean of 3.35.

Table 6. Farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds.

Farmers’ Knowledge	Very Low	Low	Moderate	High	Very High	Mean	SD	Rank
	%	%	%	%	%
Rely on trusted sources to purchase potato seeds.	6.9	13	19.5	35.5	25.1	3.59	1.19	1st
Ensure the seeds are stored under suitable conditions.	6.9	13.9	23.4	29	26.8	3.55	1.22	2nd
I am knowledgeable about appropriate seed varieties.	6.9	15.2	24.7	30.3	22.9	3.47	1.20	3rd
I prefer certified seeds to reused seeds.	7.8	14.7	23.4	32	22.1	3.46	1.21	4th
I check that the seeds are disease-free before planting.	11.3	13.9	19.5	29	26.4	3.45	1.32	5th
I can distinguish between healthy and diseased seeds.	11.7	14.3	17.7	30.3	26	3.45	1.33	5th
I consult local agricultural recommendations.	7.8	14.7	26.4	27.3	23.8	3.45	1.22	5th
I am familiar with common seed diseases in my region.	8.7	14.3	25.5	30.7	20.8	3.41	1.21	6th
I compare different potato varieties before purchasing.	7.4	18.6	24.2	31.2	18.6	3.35	1.19	7th

Table 7 shows that more than half of the respondents have high knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. Whereas 49% of the respondents have low to moderate knowledge.

Table 7. Overall farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds.

Knowledge	Frequency	Percentage	Mean
Low	36	15.6	2.38
Moderate	76	32.9
High	119	51.5

Table 8 shows farmers’ perceptions of the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge on sustainable agricultural potato cultivation practices. The analysis findings are arranged by mean score, ranging from 3.52 to 3.33. The statement “helping to reduce environmental pollution caused by using chemicals” ranked first, with a mean value of 3.52. Whereas the statement “I learned from agricultural extension services how to access markets to sell my potato crop” ranked last, with a mean value of 3.33.

Table 8. Farmers’ perceptions of the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices for potato cultivation.

Items	Strongly Disagree	Disagree	Neutral	Agree	Strongly Agree	Mean	SD	Rank
	%	%	%	%	%
Helping to reduce environmental pollution caused by using chemicals.	6.1	9.1	28.6	39.8	16.5	3.52	1.06	1st
Learning about crop rotation.	6.5	7.8	30.7	40.3	14.7	3.49	1.05	2nd
Agricultural extension played a role in improving potato productivity.	6.5	9.1	31.2	37.2	16	3.47	1.07	3rd
I learned from the agricultural extension agent about potato farming costs.	7.4	6.9	36.8	33.8	15.2	3.42	1.06	4th
Extension activities contributed to improving potato productivity.	7.4	8.2	33.8	36.4	14.3	3.42	1.07	4th
Agricultural extension programs helped me acquire agricultural skills in potato cultivation.	6.9	11.3	31.2	34.6	16	3.42	1.10	4th
Raising awareness of the importance of regulating fertilizer and pesticide use in agriculture.	6.9	10	32	36.8	14.3	3.42	1.07	4th
Agricultural extension contributed to raising my knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices.	8.2	5.6	36.8	36.4	13	3.40	1.05	5th
Agricultural extension helped me acquire the skill to apply modern potato irrigation techniques.	6.9	10.4	34.6	32	16	3.40	1.09	5th
I received simplified scientific recommendations on the sustainable use of pesticides and fertilizers in potato cultivation.	6.5	11.7	32.9	33.3	15.6	3.40	1.09	5th
Increasing participation in activities related to sustainable agricultural practices.	7.4	9.5	33.8	34.6	14.7	3.40	1.08	5th
I learned about modern technologies used in potato cultivation from agricultural extension.	7.4	10.8	33.3	32	16.5	3.39	1.11	6th
I received significant support from agricultural extension to experiment with modern and innovative farming methods.	7.4	12.1	32.5	31.6	16.5	3.38	1.12	7th
I received reliable and up-to-date information from the agricultural extension agent about sustainable farming techniques.	7.4	10.8	35.9	32	13.9	3.34	1.08	8th
Agricultural extension services contributed to the development of farm management skills.	6.9	12.6	33.8	32.9	13.9	3.34	1.08	8th
I learned from agricultural extension services how to access markets to sell my potato crop.	6.9	12.6	35.9	29.4	15.2	3.33	1.09	9th

Table 9 shows that more than 64% of the respondents agreed with the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices in potato cultivation. Whereas 22.52% of the respondents were neutral, while only 12.98% agreed with the extension role.

Table 9. Overall farmers’ perceptions of the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices in potato cultivation.

Perceptions	Frequency	Percentage	Mean
Disagree	30	12.98	2.51
Neutral	52	22.52
Agree	149	64.50

Table 10, Table 11, Table 12 and Table 13 shows a significant difference in mean value based on the LSD post hoc test. A mean difference with a p-value of 0.05 or lower (α = 0.05) indicates a significant difference. The significant difference was highlighted to make it easier to identify which variables differ significantly based on knowledge and perceptions.

Table 10. LSD for land preparation knowledge based on farming experience, monthly farm income and income from potato farm.

(I) Farming Experience	(J) Farming Experience	Mean Difference (I − J)	Std. Error	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
					Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Under 16 years old	16 to under 32 years old	−0.05838	0.10180	0.567	−0.2590	0.1422
	32 years and over	−0.41585 *	0.12997	0.002	−0.6719	−0.1598
16 to under 32 years old	Under 16 years old	0.05838	0.10180	0.567	−0.1422	0.2590
	32 years and over	−0.35748 *	0.13872	0.011	−0.6308	−0.0842
32 years and over	Under 16 years old	0.41585 *	0.12997	0.002	0.1598	0.6719
	16 to under 32 years old	0.35748 *	0.13872	0.011	0.0842	0.6308
LSD for land preparation knowledge based on monthly farm income
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.18810	0.21231	0.377	−0.2303	0.6064
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.16450	0.16729	0.326	−0.4941	0.1651
	More than 5300 USD	−0.41677 *	0.16148	0.010	−0.7350	−0.0986
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	Less than 2700 USD	−0.18810	0.21231	0.377	−0.6064	0.2303
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.35260 *	0.17054	0.040	−0.6886	−0.0165
	More than 5300 USD	−0.60487 *	0.16485	0.000	−0.9297	−0.2800
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.16450	0.16729	0.326	−0.1651	0.4941
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.35260 *	0.17054	0.040	0.0165	0.6886
	More than 5300 USD	−0.25227 *	0.10042	0.013	−0.4501	−0.0544
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.41677 *	0.16148	0.010	0.0986	0.7350
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.60487 *	0.16485	0.000	0.2800	0.9297
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.25227 *	0.10042	0.013	0.0544	0.4501
LSD for land preparation knowledge based on income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.39034 *	0.13776	0.005	−0.6618	−0.1189
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.46144 *	0.12112	0.000	−0.7001	−0.2228
	More than 5300 USD	−0.79192 *	0.13207	0.000	−1.0522	−0.5317
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.39034 *	0.13776	0.005	0.1189	0.6618
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.07110	0.12026	0.555	−0.3081	0.1659
	More than 5300 USD	−0.40158 *	0.13127	0.002	−0.6603	−0.1429
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.46144 *	0.12112	0.000	0.2228	0.7001
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.07110	0.12026	0.555	−0.1659	0.3081
	More than 5300 USD	−0.33048 *	0.11370	0.004	−0.5545	−0.1064
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.79192 *	0.13207	0.000	0.5317	1.0522
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.40158 *	0.13127	0.002	0.1429	0.6603
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.33048 *	0.11370	0.004	0.1064	0.5545

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 11. LSD for knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices based on farming experience, monthly farm income and income from potato farms.

(I) Farming Experience	(J) Farming Experience	Mean Difference (I − J)	Std. Error	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
					Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Under 16 years old	16 to under 32 years old	−0.08616	0.10680	0.421	−0.2966	0.1243
	32 years and over	−0.44220 *	0.13635	0.001	−0.7109	−0.1735
16 to under 32 years old	Under 16 years old	0.08616	0.10680	0.421	−0.1243	0.2966
	32 years and over	−0.35604 *	0.14553	0.015	−0.6428	−0.0693
32 years and over	Under 16 years old	0.44220 *	0.13635	0.001	0.1735	0.7109
	16 to under 32 years old	0.35604 *	0.14553	0.015	0.0693	0.6428
LSD for knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices based on monthly farm income
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.28571	0.22605	0.208	−0.1597	0.7311
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.03896	0.17812	0.827	−0.3120	0.3899
	More than 5300 USD	−0.22756	0.17193	0.187	−0.5663	0.1112
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	Less than 2700 USD	−0.28571	0.22605	0.208	−0.7311	0.1597
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.24675	0.18158	0.176	−0.6046	0.1110
	More than 5300 USD	−0.51327 *	0.17552	0.004	−0.8591	−0.1674
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	−0.03896	0.17812	0.827	−0.3899	0.3120
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.24675	0.18158	0.176	−0.1110	0.6046
	More than 5300 USD	−0.26652 *	0.10691	0.013	−0.4772	−0.0558
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.22756	0.17193	0.187	−0.1112	0.5663
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.51327 *	0.17552	0.004	0.1674	0.8591
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.26652 *	0.10691	0.013	0.0558	0.4772
LSD for knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices based on income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.32415 *	0.15064	0.032	−0.6210	−0.0273
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.20523	0.13245	0.123	−0.4662	0.0558
	More than 5300 USD	−0.54747 *	0.14441	0.000	−0.8320	−0.2629
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.32415 *	0.15064	0.032	0.0273	0.6210
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.11893	0.13151	0.367	−0.1402	0.3781
	More than 5300 USD	−0.22332	0.14355	0.121	−0.5062	0.0595
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.20523	0.13245	0.123	−0.0558	0.4662
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.11893	0.13151	0.367	−0.3781	0.1402
	More than 5300 USD	−0.34225 *	0.12433	0.006	−0.5872	−0.0973
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.54747 *	0.14441	0.000	0.2629	0.8320
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.22332	0.14355	0.121	−0.0595	0.5062
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.34225 *	0.12433	0.006	0.0973	0.5872

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 12. LSD for farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds based on age, education, farming experience, monthly farm income and income from potato farms.

(I) Age	(J) Age	Mean Difference (I − J)	Std. Error	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
					Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Under 41 years old	41 to under 57 years old	−0.09862	0.10572	0.352	−0.3069	0.1097
	57 years and over	−0.37431 *	0.14552	0.011	−0.6611	−0.0876
41 to under 57 years old	Under 41 years old	0.09862	0.10572	0.352	−0.1097	0.3069
	57 years and over	−0.27570	0.14591	0.060	−0.5632	0.0118
57 years and over	Under 41 years old	0.37431 *	0.14552	0.011	0.0876	0.6611
	41 to under 57 years old	0.27570	0.14591	0.060	−0.0118	0.5632
LSD for farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed based on education
Elementary	Intermediate	−0.14583	0.19689	0.460	−0.5338	0.2421
	Secondary	0.25947	0.18090	0.153	−0.0970	0.6159
	University	0.32056 *	0.14458	0.028	0.0357	0.6055
	Postgraduate	−0.15972	0.21483	0.458	−0.5830	0.2636
Intermediate	Elementary	0.14583	0.19689	0.460	−0.2421	0.5338
	Secondary	0.40530 *	0.19561	0.039	0.0198	0.7908
	University	0.46640 *	0.16260	0.005	0.1460	0.7868
	Postgraduate	−0.01389	0.22735	0.951	−0.4619	0.4341
Secondary	Elementary	−0.25947	0.18090	0.153	−0.6159	0.0970
	Intermediate	−0.40530 *	0.19561	0.039	−0.7908	−0.0198
	University	0.06109	0.14282	0.669	−0.2203	0.3425
	Postgraduate	−0.41919	0.21365	0.051	−0.8402	0.0018
University	Elementary	−0.32056 *	0.14458	0.028	−0.6055	−0.0357
	Intermediate	−0.46640 *	0.16260	0.005	−0.7868	−0.1460
	Secondary	−0.06109	0.14282	0.669	−0.3425	0.2203
	Postgraduate	−0.48029 *	0.18391	0.010	−0.8427	−0.1179
Postgraduate	Elementary	0.15972	0.21483	0.458	−0.2636	0.5830
	Intermediate	0.01389	0.22735	0.951	−0.4341	0.4619
	Secondary	0.41919 *	0.21365	0.051	−0.0018	0.8402
	University	0.48029 *	0.18391	0.010	0.1179	0.8427
LSD for farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed based on farming experience
Under 16 years old	16 to under 32 years old	−0.01401	0.10901	0.898	−0.2288	0.2008
	32 years and over	−0.35635 *	0.13917	0.011	−0.6306	−0.0821
16 to under 32 years old	Under 16 years old	0.01401	0.10901	0.898	−0.2008	0.2288
	32 years and over	−0.34234 *	0.14854	0.022	−0.6350	−0.0497
32 years and over	Under 16 years old	0.35635 *	0.13917	0.011	0.0821	0.6306
	16 to under 32 years old	0.34234 *	0.14854	0.022	0.0497	0.6350
LSD for farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed based on monthly farm income
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.14286	0.22826	0.532	−0.3069	0.5926
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.16883	0.17986	0.349	−0.5232	0.1856
	More than 5300 USD	−0.39697 *	0.17361	0.023	−0.7391	−0.0549
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	Less than 2700 USD	−0.14286	0.22826	0.532	−0.5926	0.3069
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.31169	0.18336	0.091	−0.6730	0.0496
	More than 5300 USD	−0.53982 *	0.17723	0.003	−0.8891	−0.1906
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.16883	0.17986	0.349	−0.1856	0.5232
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.31169	0.18336	0.091	−0.0496	0.6730
	More than 5300 USD	−0.22813 *	0.10796	0.036	−0.4409	−0.0154
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.39697 *	0.17361	0.023	0.0549	0.7391
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.53982 *	0.17723	0.003	0.1906	0.8891
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.22813 *	0.10796	0.036	0.0154	0.4409
LSD for farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed based on income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.30338 *	0.14868	0.042	−0.5964	−0.0104
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.27320 *	0.13073	0.038	−0.5308	−0.0156
	More than 5300 USD	−0.73737 *	0.14254	0.000	−1.0182	−0.4565
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.30338 *	0.14868	0.042	0.0104	0.5964
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.03018	0.12980	0.816	−0.2256	0.2859
	More than 5300 USD	−0.43399 *	0.14169	0.002	−0.7132	−0.1548
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.27320 *	0.13073	0.038	0.0156	0.5308
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.03018	0.12980	0.816	−0.2859	0.2256
	More than 5300 USD	−0.46417 *	0.12272	0.000	−0.7060	−0.2224
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.73737 *	0.14254	0.000	0.4565	1.0182
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.43399 *	0.14169	0.002	0.1548	0.7132
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.46417 *	0.12272	0.000	0.2224	0.7060

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 13. LSD for farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services based on education, monthly farm income and income from potato farms.

(I) Educational Level	(J) Educational Level	Mean Difference (I − J)	Std. Error	Sig.	95% Confidence Interval
					Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Elementary	Intermediate	−0.40625	0.28870	0.161	−0.9751	0.1626
	Secondary	−0.01610	0.26525	0.952	−0.5388	0.5066
	University	0.25907	0.21199	0.223	−0.1587	0.6768
	Postgraduate	0.41319	0.31500	0.191	−0.2075	1.0339
Intermediate	Elementary	0.40625	0.28870	0.161	−0.1626	0.9751
	Secondary	0.39015	0.28682	0.175	−0.1750	0.9553
	University	0.66532 *	0.23842	0.006	0.1955	1.1351
	Postgraduate	0.81944 *	0.33336	0.015	0.1626	1.4763
Secondary	Elementary	0.01610	0.26525	0.952	−0.5066	0.5388
	Intermediate	−0.39015	0.28682	0.175	−0.9553	0.1750
	University	0.27517	0.20942	0.190	−0.1375	0.6878
	Postgraduate	0.42929	0.31327	0.172	−0.1880	1.0466
University	Elementary	−0.25907	0.21199	0.223	−0.6768	0.1587
	Intermediate	−0.66532 *	0.23842	0.006	−1.1351	−0.1955
	Secondary	−0.27517	0.20942	0.190	−0.6878	0.1375
	Postgraduate	0.15412	0.26967	0.568	−0.3773	0.6855
Postgraduate	Elementary	−0.41319	0.31500	0.191	−1.0339	0.2075
	Intermediate	−0.81944 *	0.33336	0.015	−1.4763	−0.1626
	Secondary	−0.42929	0.31327	0.172	−1.0466	0.1880
	University	−0.15412	0.26967	0.568	−0.6855	0.3773
LSD for farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services based on farm monthly income
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.78571 *	0.33472	0.020	−1.4453	−0.1262
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.71429 *	0.26374	0.007	−1.2340	−0.1946
	More than 5300 USD	−0.65740 *	0.25458	0.010	−1.1590	−0.1558
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.78571 *	0.33472	0.020	0.1262	1.4453
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	0.07143	0.26887	0.791	−0.4584	0.6012
	More than 5300 USD	0.12832	0.25989	0.622	−0.3838	0.6404
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.71429 *	0.26374	0.007	0.1946	1.2340
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.07143	0.26887	0.791	−0.6012	0.4584
	More than 5300 USD	0.05689	0.15831	0.720	−0.2551	0.3688
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.65740 *	0.25458	0.010	0.1558	1.1590
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.12832	0.25989	0.622	−0.6404	0.3838
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.05689	0.15831	0.720	−0.3688	0.2551
LSD for farmers’ farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services based on income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.34493	0.22454	0.126	−0.7874	0.0975
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.40784 *	0.19743	0.040	−0.7969	−0.0188
	More than 5300 USD	0.04242	0.21526	0.844	−0.3817	0.4666
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.34493	0.22454	0.126	−0.0975	0.7874
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.06292	0.19602	0.749	−0.4492	0.3233
	More than 5300 USD	0.38735	0.21397	0.072	−0.0343	0.8090
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	0.40784 *	0.19743	0.040	0.0188	0.7969
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	0.06292	0.19602	0.749	−0.3233	0.4492
	More than 5300 USD	0.45027 *	0.18532	0.016	0.0851	0.8154
More than 5300 USD	Less than 2700 USD	−0.04242	0.21526	0.844	−0.4666	0.3817
	2700 USD to less than 4000 USD	−0.38735	0.21397	0.072	−0.8090	0.0343
	4000 USD to less than 5300 USD	−0.45027 *	0.18532	0.016	−0.8154	−0.0851

* The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 14 shows the results of the one-way ANOVA. The findings revealed a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting based on their farming experience (F = 5.20; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.18). It means that farmers with higher farming experience had more knowledge than other groups.

Table 14. One-way ANOVA differences in farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting based on their demographic characteristics.

Items	Farmers’ Knowledge of Land Preparation for Potato Planting
	Mean	SD	F	p-Value
Age
Less 41 years old n = 99	2.39	0.75	2.58	0.10
41 to less than 57 years old n = 97	2.49	0.66
More than 57 years n = 35	2.68	0.63
Education
Primary n = 32	2.53	0.71	0. 41	0.79
Secondary n = 24	2.58	0.58
Intermediate n = 33	2.51	0.75
College n = 124	2.42	0.70
University n = 18	2.55	0.78
Farming experience
Less than 16 years n = 119	2.39	0.71	5.20	0.00
16 to less than 32 years n = 75	2.45	0.74
More than 32 years n = 37	2.81	0.46		ηp2 = 0.18
Monthly farm income
Less than 2700 USD n = 21	2.23	0.88	6.38	0.00
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 20	2.05	0.88
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 77	2.40	0.73
More than 5300 USD n = 113	2.65	0.54		ηp2 = 0.22
Income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD n = 45	2.04	0.82	12.10	0.00
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 46	2.43	0.62
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 85	2.50	0.71
More than 5300 USD n = 55	2.83	0.37		ηp2 = 0.15

There was a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting based on their monthly farm incomes (F = 6.38; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.22). Farmers with high monthly farm income had more knowledge than others.

There was a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting based on their income from potato crops (F = 12.10; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.15). Farmers with high income from potato crops had more knowledge than others.

Table 12 shows a significant difference in mean value based on the LSD post hoc test. A mean difference with a p-value of 0.05 or lower (α = 0.05) indicates a significant difference. The significant difference was highlighted to make it easier to identify which variables differ significantly based on knowledge and perceptions

Table 15 shows the results of the one-way ANOVA. The findings revealed a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices based on their farming experience (F = 5.27; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was low (ηp² = 0.04). It means that farmers with higher farming experience had more knowledge than other groups.

Table 15. One-way ANOVA differences in Farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices based on their demographic characteristics.

Items	Farmers’ Knowledge of Potato Crop Inputs and Production Practices
	Mean	SD	F	p-Value
Age
Less 41 years old n = 99	2.30	0.77	1.06	0.34
41 to less than 57 years old n = 97	2.36	0.69
More than 57 years n = 35	2.51	0.74
Education
Primary n = 32	2.37	0.75	1.20	0.30
Secondary n = 24	2.62	0.64
Intermediate n = 33	2.30	0.68
College n = 124	2.29	0.75
University n = 18	2.50	0.78
Farming experience
Less than 16 years n = 119	2.26	0.75	5.27	0.00
16 to less than 32 years n = 75	2.34	0.72
More than 32 years n = 37	2.70	0.61		ηp2 = 0.04
Monthly farm income
Less than 2700 USD n = 21	2.28	0.84	4.04	0.00
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 20	2.00	0.79
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 77	2.24	0.78		ηp2 = 0.19
More than 5300 USD n = 113	2.51	0.64
Income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD n = 45	2.08	0.79	5.17	0.00
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 46	2.41	0.65
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 85	2.29	0.79
More than 5300 USD n = 55	2.63	0.55		ηp2 = 0.12

There was a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices based on their monthly farm incomes (F = 4.04; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.19). Farmers with high monthly farm income had more knowledge than others.

There was a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of potato crop inputs and production practices based on their income from potato crops (F = 5.17; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.12). Farmers with high income from potato crops had more knowledge than others.

Table 14 shows a significant difference in mean value based on the LSD post hoc test. A mean difference with a p-value of 0.05 or lower (α = 0.05) indicates a significant difference. The significant difference was highlighted to make it easier to identify which variables differ significantly based on knowledge and perceptions.

Table 16 shows the results of the one-way ANOVA. The findings revealed a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed by age (F = 3.30; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.14). It means older farmers had more knowledge than other groups.

Table 16. One-way ANOVA differences in farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds based on their demographic characteristics.

Items	Farmers’ Knowledge of Healthy, High-Quality, and Disease-Free Potato Seeds
	Mean	SD	F	p-Value
Age
Less 41 years old n = 99	2.28	0.75	3.30	0.03
41 to less than 57 years old n = 97	2.38	0.76
More than 57 years n = 35	2.65	0.59		ηp2 = 0.14
Education
Primary n = 32	2.56	0.66	3.91	0.00
Secondary n = 24	2.70	0.55
Intermediate n = 33	2.30	0.76
College n = 124	2.24	0.76		ηp2 = 0.04
University n = 18	2.72	0.66
Farming experience
Less than 16 years n = 119	2.31	0.71	3.50	0.03
16 to less than 32 years n = 75	2.33	0.81
More than 32 years n = 37	2.67	0.66		ηp2 = 0.01
Monthly farm income
Less than 2700 USD n = 21	2.14	0.91	4.56	0.00
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 20	2.00	0.64
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 77	2.31	0.79		ηp2 = 0.20
More than 5300 USD n = 113	2.53	0.65
Income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD n = 45	2.04	0.76	9.49	0.00
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 46	2.34	0.76
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 85	2.31	0.77
More than 5300 USD n = 55	2.78	0.45		ηp2 = 0.30

There was a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds based on their education level (F = 3.91; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was low (ηp² = 0.04). It means highly educated farmers had more knowledge than other groups.

There was a significant difference related to farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed based on their farming experience (F = 3.50; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was low (ηp² = 0.01). It means that farmers with higher farming experience had more knowledge than other groups.

There was a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed based on their monthly farm income (F = 4.56; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.20). Farmers with high monthly farm income had more knowledge than others.

There was a significant difference in farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed based on their income from potato crops (F = 9.49; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.30). Farmers with high income from potato crops had more knowledge than others.

Table 17 shows the results of the one-way ANOVA. The findings revealed a significant difference in farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services by education level (F = 2.54; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.22). It means highly educated farmers had more knowledge than other groups.

Table 17. One-way ANOVA differences in farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension based on their demographic characteristics.

Items	Farmers’ Perceptions of Agricultural Extension Services
	Mean	SD	F	p-Value
Age
Less 41 years old n = 99	3.30	1.11	0.12	0.88
41 to less than 57 years old n = 97	3.36	1.09
More than 57 years n = 35	3.40	0.97
Education
Primary n = 32	3.46	0.91	2.54	0.04
Secondary n = 24	3.87	0.85
Intermediate n = 33	3.48	1.12
College n = 124	3.20	1.09		ηp2 = 0.22
University n = 18	3.05	1.30
Farming experience
Less than 16 years n = 119	3.24	1.10	1.53	0.21
16 to less than 32 years n = 75	3.37	1.07
More than 32 years n = 37	3.59	1.01
Monthly farm income
Less than 2700 USD n = 21	2.71	1.34	2.74	0.04
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 20	3.50	0.88
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 77	3.42	0.95		ηp2 = 0.19
More than 5300 USD n = 113	3.37	1.11
Income from potato farm
Less than 2700 USD n = 45	3.13	1.14	2.80	0.04
2700 USD to less than 4000 USD n = 46	3.47	0.80
4000 USD to less than 5300 USD n = 85	3.54	0.99
More than 5300 USD n = 55	3.09	1.29		ηp2 = 0.19

There was a significant difference in farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services based on their monthly farm income (F = 2.74; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was low (ηp² = 0.04). Farmers with high monthly farm income had more knowledge than others.

There was a significant difference in farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services based on their income from potato crops (F = 2.80; p = 0.001). Moreover, the size difference between the group means was high (ηp² = 0.19). Farmers with high income from potato crops had more knowledge than others.

Table 18 shows the findings of multiple regression to examine the effect of the predictive variables of age, education, farming experience, monthly farm income, and income from potato farm (independent variable) on the criterion variable, which includes farmers’ knowledge of land preparation, crop inputs, production practices, and seeds (dependent variable). Regarding land preparation, the F-test value was 7.73. The effect of income from potato farms on farmers’ knowledge is significant (p = 0.00). The coefficient of determination R² was 0.14. It shows that independent variables, such as income from potato farms, can explain 14% of the variation in farmers’ knowledge of land preparation.

Table 18. Multiple regression between farmers’ knowledge of land preparation, crop inputs and production practices, healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds and socio-economic characteristics.

Criterion	R	R2	Predictors	Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	p-Value
				B	Std. Error	Beta
Farmers’ knowledge of land preparation	0.38	0.14	Age	−0.01	0.08	−0.01	−0.176	0.86
			Education	0.01	0.04	0.01	0.279	0.78
			Farming experience	0.14	0.08	0.14	1.637	0.10
			Monthly farm income	0.01	0.06	0.01	0.230	0.81
			Income from potato farm	0.21	0.05	0.32	4.096	0.00
F = 7.73, R2 = 0.14, Durbin–Watson = 1.66
Multiple regression between farmers’ knowledge of crop inputs and production practices and socio-economic characteristics
Farmers’ knowledge of crop inputs and production practices	0.27	0.07	Age	−0.11	0.09	−0.11	−1.179	0.24
			Education	0.01	0.04	0.01	0.263	0.79
			Farming experience	0.24	0.09	0.24	2.610	0.01
			Monthly farm income	0.03	0.06	0.04	0.486	0.62
			Income from potato farm	0.11	0.05	0.16	1.935	0.05
F = 3.77, R2 = 0.07, Durbin–Watson = 2.00
Multiple regression between farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds and socio-economic characteristics
Farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds	0.32	0.10	Age	0.08	0.09	0.07	0.825	0.41
			Education	−0.04	0.04	−0.07	−1.016	0.31
			Farming experience	0.00	0.09	0.00	0.094	0.92
			Monthly farm income	0.02	0.06	0.02	0.306	0.76
			Income from potato farm	0.19	0.05	0.26	0.3278	0.00
F = 5.41, R2 = 0.10, Durbin–Watson = 1.90

The beta value (0.32) for “income from potato farm” indicates that a one-unit increase in the predictor would lead to a change of 0.32 units in farmers’ knowledge. Predictor (income from potato farm) shows a positive beta value, indicating a positive relationship between the predictor and the criterion. This means that higher income from potato farms increases farmers’ knowledge of land preparation.

Regarding farmers’ knowledge of crop input and production practices. The F-test value was 3.77. The effect of income from potato farms on farmers’ knowledge is significant (p = 0.05). The effect of farming experience on farmers’ knowledge is significant (p = 0.01). The coefficient of determination R² was 0.07. It shows that 7% of the variation in farmers’ knowledge of crop inputs and production practices could be explained by independent variables such as income from potato farms and farming experience.

The beta value (0.16) for “income from potato farm” indicates that a one-unit increase in the predictor would lead to a change of 0.16 units in farmers’ knowledge. The beta value (0.24) for “farming experience” indicates that a one-unit increase in the predictor would lead to a change of 0.24 units in farmers’ knowledge. Both predictors, income from potato farming and farming experience, show positive beta values, indicating a positive relationship between the predictor and the criterion. This means that higher income from potato farms and greater farming experience increase farmers’ knowledge of crop inputs and production practices.

Regarding knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds, the F-test value was obtained as 5.41. The effect of income from potato farms on farmers’ knowledge is significant (p = 0.00). The coefficient of determination R² was 0.10. It shows that 10% of the variation in farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds can be explained by independent variables, such as income from potato farms.

The beta value (0.26) for “income from potato farm” indicates that a one-unit increase in the predictor would lead to a change of 0.26 units in farmers’ knowledge. The predictor (income from potato farm) shows a positive beta value, indicating a positive relationship between the predictor and the criterion. This means that an increase in income from potato farms increases farmers’ knowledge of healthy, high-quality and disease-free potato seeds.

Table 19 shows the findings of multiple regression to examine the effect of the predictive variables of age, education, farming experience, monthly farm income, and income from potato farm (independent variable) on the criterion variable, including farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services (dependent variable). The F-test value was 5.52. The effect of monthly farm income on farmers’ perceptions is significant (p = 0.05). The effect of education on farmers’ perceptions is significant (p = 0.04). The coefficient of determination R² was 0.05. It shows that 5% of the variation in farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services could be explained by independent variables such as monthly farm income and education.

Table 19. Multiple regression between farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services and socio-economic characteristics.

Criterion	R	R2	Predictors	Unstandardized Coefficients		Standardized Coefficients	t	p-Value
				B	Std. Error	Beta
Farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services	0.23	0.05	Age	−0.20	0.14	−0.13	−1.439	0.15
			Education	−0.13	0.06	−0.14	−1.997	0.04
			Farming experience	0.19	0.14	0.13	1.398	0.16
			Monthly farm income	0.18	0.09	0.16	1.934	0.05
			Income from potato farm	−0.11	0.08	−0.11	−1.358	0.17

F = 5.52, R² = 0.05, Durbin–Watson = 1.97.

The beta value (0.16) for “monthly farm income” indicates that a one-unit increase in the predictor would lead to a change of 0.16 units in farmers’ perceptions. The beta value (−0.14) for “education” indicates that a one-unit increase in the predictor would lead to a change of −0.14 units in farmers’ perceptions. The predictor, monthly farm income, shows a positive beta, indicating a positive relationship between the predictor and the criterion. This means that higher monthly farm income increases farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services. A negative beta value in education indicates an inverse relationship between the predictor and the criterion. This means that increased education decreases perceptions of agricultural extension services.

4. Discussion

Findings revealed that the majority of farmers had high knowledge of land preparation of potato crop, including both traditional practices such as the right time for potato planting, proper plowing, and cleaning the farm from residues, as well as sustainable practices such as land leveling, crop rotation, advanced irrigation, and soil analysis. The findings are consistent with those of Bagheri et al. [37], who found that farmers were highly familiar with traditional and sustainable practices such as crop rotation and organic manure application. Desai et al. [38] also found higher knowledge levels among farmers regarding soil preparation for potato crops and argued that farmers with higher knowledge were more likely to adopt recommended soil preparation practices. According to Pattiasina et al. [39], farmers’ knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices effectively contributes to higher crop yields and greater overall farm efficiency. Sustainable land preparation is necessary to keep the farm profitable in the long term. According to Pawelzik and Möller [40], potato crop land management offers several advantages in improving nutrient efficiency, crop protection, yield levels, and produce quality. Potato land preparation and seeding methods can promote high potato yields, reduce environmental pollution, and have high application prospects. Further, the majority of the farmers had high knowledge of overall crop inputs and potato crop production, ranging from seed selection to balanced fertilizer use, pest and disease management, and post-harvest handling. These findings contradicted those of Kwambai et al. [41], who found low knowledge of potato crop production, including recommended fertilizer application and disease management practices. Similarly, Alhafidh [42] found that only about 14% of farmers had a high level of knowledge of the various practices involved in potato cultivation. While 45.88% of farmers had medium knowledge, 40% reported low knowledge levels. Low and medium levels of potato cultivation knowledge among farmers were due to inadequate provision of technology assistance and weak extension services. Alhafidh [42] suggested online extension services, strong collaboration between the research and extension wings, and the implementation of training and educational programs by the Ministry of Agriculture at the local level.

Despite higher farmers’ knowledge, the potato industry in Saudi Arabia is facing several challenges that may demotivate farmers from cultivating potatoes. Demotivation among farmers might negatively affect their knowledge and perceptions. For instance, Potato growers faced water scarcity and low levels of non-renewable groundwater. Regarding this situation, efficient management was required to achieve sustainable development. Therefore, Cabinet Resolution No. (335) was issued in order to rationalize water consumption in agriculture and gradually stopped the export of vegetables [22]. It is expected that a lack of exports might reduce farmers’ interest in potato cultivation, as it can directly affect their incomes. Farmers surveyed stated that water scarcity, high fuel costs, climate change, weak extension services, and soil fertility issues hinder potato cultivation.

Around half of farmers also reported high knowledge of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. The high knowledge may be due to farmers themselves being certified producers, having attended training, or having regular contact with the agricultural extension department on the matter. These findings contradicted those of Workayehu et al. [43], who found low knowledge of selecting potato seed due to a lack of technical knowledge and the absence of policies and legislation regulating seed quality production and distribution.

The majority of farmers agreed on the value of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural practices. These findings are consistent with those of Hamasalih et al. [44], who reported that agricultural extension played a significant role in enhancing knowledge of potato crops.

The inferential analysis found that age and education significantly influenced farmers’ knowledge of selecting healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. These findings align with Wahhab [45], who found that age and education are significantly related to the selection of recommended potato seeds. The current findings are supported by Muddassir et al. [46], who found that older farmers in Saudi Arabia have strong cognitive and learning abilities, which help them understand information and improve their knowledge. Concerning farmers’ prior experience, the older potato growers in the study area stated that seed selection is very important because unhealthy, low-quality, and diseased seed could cause financial losses by reducing plant production. Moreover, they stated that they improved their knowledge of seed selection through training and educational programs arranged by the agricultural extension department. Agricultural extension educated older farmers about certified seed, seed varieties, seed treatment, and seed storage. Similarly, in Uganda, cyber extension improved farmers’ knowledge of selecting potato seed, seed storage, and handling [47].

Velandia et al. [48] reported that highly educated farmers could easily access different sources of agricultural information. Easy access to various sources of information may improve their knowledge and positively affect the selection of healthy, high-quality, disease-free potato seeds, educating farmers on crop production, seed selection, storage, and value addition [49]. The growth of Saudi Arabia’s agricultural food production aligns with the goals of the Kingdom’s Vision 2030, which considers a food security strategy. This involves expanding the production of goods with a high comparative advantage in the Kingdom, reducing losses and waste across supply chains, increasing productivity, and adopting sustainable practices in local production [6]. These government efforts might help improve farmers’ knowledge.

Findings showed that farming experience significantly influenced knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs and production practices, and the selection of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. More experienced farmers have extensive knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs and production practices, and the selection of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. These findings align with those of Hassan et al. [50], who reported that highly experienced farmers possessed greater knowledge of potato crop production technologies, including land preparation, crop production, agricultural inputs, and harvest. It might be due to their access to government research centers. Moreover, experienced farmers learn knowledge through their personal experiences and communication with other farmers. Saudi Arabia has a desert climate, which is a major challenge for agriculture; it could negatively affect soil physiology and reduce crop production. To mitigate the negative effects of climate change, farmers in Saudi Arabia might learn more knowledge of land preparation and sustainable plant production practices. Mohamad Al-Habal et al. [51] reported that the negative effects of climate change and potato farmers’ knowledge levels are significantly related.

Higher farming experience played a vital role in understanding land preparation, inputs, potato production, and seed selection. It refers to their long experience in agricultural activities [52]. High experience in farming covers several aspects, including knowledge of soil preparation, pest and plant disease control, and the adoption of agricultural innovations [53]. Moreover, our findings are consistent with those of Gadanakis [54], who reported that highly experienced farmers drew on their experience when incorporating sustainable agricultural practices, such as land preparation, crop inputs, production practices, and healthy, disease-free seed selection. Furthermore, findings are consistent with those of Kurniati [55] in the Kuantan Singingi Regency, Pambudi and Bendesa [56] in the Regency, and Tunas et al. [57] in the Minahasa Regency; it was concluded that high experience in agriculture positively affects farmers’ knowledge and potato production. Farmers’ knowledge, driven by experience, helps apply innovative technologies, such as certified and improved high-quality, disease-free potato seed varieties, which enhance crop production [58].

Findings showed that monthly farm income and income from the potato farm significantly influenced farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs and production practices, and the selection of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. Understandably, high income from the potato crop and monthly farm income might motivate them more toward sustainable agricultural practices to enhance crop production. In fact, low farm income discourages learning and adoption of sustainable agricultural practices [59]. The effects of farm incomes on sustainable agricultural practices cannot be ignored. Soil leveling, high-quality agricultural inputs, and quality seed required a huge investment to achieve high potato production. Low income may hinder its incorporation in agriculture [60]. Prior to potato cultivation, high-income potato growers might arrange paid sources of information and consultation to improve their knowledge of advanced technologies [61]. According to the researcher, surveyed farmers’ income was completely dependent on the potato crop. They considered it a sensitive investment given Saudi Arabia’s climate change. Therefore, high-income farmers sought international consultation and participated in workshops abroad on potato cultivation. They stated that high income drives their knowledge. They further stated that high income encourages them to gain more knowledge of potato crop production techniques, including land preparation, agricultural inputs, and the selection of healthy, high-quality, disease-free seeds. For instance, the Saudi Agricultural Development Fund (ADF) for agricultural investment abroad has enabled farmers to invest abroad to earn higher incomes. Therefore, the farmers in the study stated that agricultural investments in other countries enabled them to acquire new knowledge. High economic returns from the potato crop might motivate them to adopt innovative approaches to sustainable agricultural practices to enhance crop production. Knowledgeable farmers are more inclined to adopt sustainable practices that yield greater profits from the land. A few studies, such as those by Dhananjaya and Ranjith [62] and Ullah et al. [63], indicate a relationship between high income and greater knowledge among farmers.

Findings revealed that education level, monthly farm income, and income from the potato crop influenced farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services’ ability to disseminate information about sustainable agricultural practices. Alotaibi et al. [64] confirmed that farmers’ perceptions of the role of extension services varied by educational level. The findings of the current study align with Bader [65], who reported that highly educated farmers perceived extension services more positively. Educated individuals understand more about sustainable agricultural practices and are better informed about the advantages and disadvantages of innovations [66]. Highly educated farmers could better understand scientific information regarding potato farming. Educated farmers possess greater knowledge, enabling them to assess better the potential benefits of agricultural innovation [67]. Surveyed farmers might attend training programs offered by various institutions, which might improve their cognitive abilities. Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA) arranged training for potato farmers on sustainable development and environmental conservation in Saudi Arabia. In many countries, agricultural extension offices of the Ministry of Agriculture improve farmers’ knowledge of advanced innovations and sustainable agricultural practices by launching education programs and workshops. Moreover, the agricultural extension department in Saudi Arabia promotes the adoption of innovations to improve agricultural productivity and farm incomes [66,68].

Monthly farm income and income from the potato crop significantly influenced farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension. Most farmers in the study area were willing to contribute to local production and marketing. They were willing to buy innovative technologies for potato cultivation. Prior to purchasing technologies, they communicated with the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture and the Agricultural Extension Department to gain more knowledge of innovative techniques for growing potato crops on their farms. Seed center under the supervision of the Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA) provided extension services and supervision to approve potato seeds to obtain financial support from Agricultural Development Funds and permission to export excess potato seeds to the local market [69]. High-income farmers stated that the agricultural extension department improved their potato production through training, educational programs, and workshops. As per the suggestions of the extension department, they adopted various innovative techniques and implemented advanced tools and sustainable practices on their farms. The National Company for Agricultural Services (AgriServ), owned by the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, was established under Council of Ministers Resolution No. (604), dated 25/11/1439 AH, improved their perceptions by providing agricultural extension services. AgriServ provided high-quality and sustainable agricultural services to empower potato farmers and commercial enterprises in the agricultural sector, contributing to improved operational efficiency, enhanced quality and productivity, and support for the goals of agricultural sector development [70]. Moreover, surveyed farmers stated that the agricultural extension department improved their incomes, transforming their farms from traditional to modern farming. High farm incomes and potato crop incomes, with support from the agricultural extension department, reduced their debt, improved livelihoods, and built resilience to socio-economic and environmental effects. Therefore, their perceptions of agricultural extension were higher than those of others.

Farmers’ education was inversely associated with their perceptions of agricultural extension services. These findings contradict those of Alotaibi and Kassem [71], who found that farmers’ perceptions of the role of extension services varied by educational level. Whereas findings of Al-Zahrani et al. [72] found that education negatively influences farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension. It can be expected that educated farmers will seek innovative information and avoid information they already hold. The continuous dissemination of old information in extension programs may reduce their perceptions.

The current study provides deep insight into farmers’ knowledge of potato cultivation and their perceptions of extension services in Saudi Arabia. The findings, methodology, and content of the study have contributed to the existing literature and research. It covered a large sample size from five various regions of Saudi Arabia. Also, it addressed research questions related to farmers’ knowledge and perceptions, which could be helpful for future research in Saudi Arabia and may benefit researchers in other states. According to the researchers’ knowledge, this is the first study to examine social aspects, including the influence of socio-economic characteristics on farmers’ knowledge and perceptions across five regions: Riyadh, Qassim, Hail, Tabuk, and Al-Jawf. Previous research was mostly restricted to small regions and relied on methods other than stratified sampling. Moreover, it carries information about the Ministry’s Initiatives toward food security. Before designing education programs, training, and workshops, the study’s findings reflect the farmers’ situation in the study areas. It may help policymakers in designing agricultural programs for farming communities, especially for potato growers.

5. Conclusions

The current study assesses farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs and production practices, healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds and their perceptions of agricultural extension services. The majority of respondents have strong knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop production practices, and the selection of healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed. Moreover, farmers highly valued the role of agricultural extension in disseminating knowledge of sustainable agricultural potato cultivation practices.

Farmers’ age and education level significantly influenced their knowledge of selecting healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seeds. Monthly farm income and income from potato farms significantly influenced farmers’ knowledge of land preparation for potato planting, potato crop inputs and production practices, and healthy, high-quality, and disease-free potato seed selection. Regarding agricultural extension services, education level, monthly farm income, and income from the potato crop influenced farmers’ perceptions of their effectiveness in disseminating information about sustainable agricultural practices. Farmers’ incomes from potato farms significantly affect their knowledge of land preparation and of producing healthy, high-quality, disease-free potato seeds. Farming experience and income from potato farms significantly affect farmers’ knowledge of crop inputs and production practices. Education and monthly farm income affect farmers’ perceptions of agricultural extension services.

The study’s outcomes may have several policy implications. First, policymakers must recognize the major obstacle to the dissemination of sustainable potato crop cultivation practices. Initiatives should be taken to educate potato growers regarding sustainable agricultural practices. Collective efforts should be made by the Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA), policymakers, and agricultural extension departments to organize training, field demonstrations, field days, and workshops for potato growers. Sustainable agricultural technologies should be provided to potato growers at low cost.

The present study selected potato growers only from the Hail, Qassim, Tabuk, Riyadh, and Al-Jawf regions. The outcomes of the study may not be generalizable to other farmers situated in other geographical regions. It is therefore suggested that more studies should be conducted to assess the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices among potato growers in other regions of Saudi Arabia. The findings of the future study should inform policymaking to promote sustainable agricultural practices at the farm level and, in turn, improve potato production for sustainable agricultural development.