Abstract
Children and adolescents with disabilities (CAWD) face barriers that limit participation in physical activity, contributing to health and inclusion disparities. This study examined the impact of a short-term inclusive physical education workshop on students’ perceptions toward the inclusion of peers with disabilities. Seventy-six students (ages 11–15) from four Hebrew-speaking schools in Israel attended a two-and-a-half-hour workshop combining disability awareness with experiential Paralympic sports activities. Perceptions were assessed using a structured questionnaire at three time points: pre-intervention, post-intervention, and three-month follow-up. The results showed a significant improvement in perceptions immediately after the workshop, with most gains sustained at follow-up. These findings suggest that brief, experiential interventions can foster lasting perceptual change, supporting inclusive education and advancing social dimensions of sustainability. This study offers practical implications for designing policies and programs that promote equity and inclusion in physical education, aligned with UN Sustainable Development Goals (3, 4, and 10).
1. Introduction
Physical activity (PA) is essential for the physical and mental well-being of youth; however, adolescents with disabilities face persistent barriers to participation, resulting in significant health and social disparities. Global reports indicate that only a minority of adolescents meet the WHO’s recommended activity levels, with even lower rates among youth with disabilities [1,2,3]. These disparities stem from personal and environmental factors, including low self-esteem, negative peer perceptions, and limited access to inclusive programs [4,5,6]. The consequences of inactivity are profound, increasing risks of cardiovascular disease, depression, anxiety, and social isolation [3].
Despite policy-level efforts and partial integration into mainstream education, where approximately 61% of students with disabilities are included, true inclusion in physical education (PE) remains limited [4]. A major barrier is insufficient teacher preparedness and lack of institutional guidance for inclusive PE, a challenge observed globally, with less than half of education ministries offering in-service training on inclusive practices [5,6].
Attitudes and perceptions of teachers and peers toward inclusion play a critical role in shaping the educational climate. Positive perceptions are associated with greater willingness to adapt activities and foster inclusive participation [7,8]. However, these perceptions vary by disability type, and many educators report feeling unprepared despite supporting inclusion in principle [9]. Foundational works on attitude theory, such as Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior [8] and Eagly & Chaiken’s analysis of attitude structure [10], provide a theoretical basis for understanding the multidimensional nature of attitudes and their implications for behavioral intentions in inclusive education contexts.
Interventions such as the Paralympic School Day (PSD) offer promising approaches. PSD uses experiential activities and storytelling by athletes with disabilities to raise awareness and empathy among students [11,12]. Such initiatives have shown immediate success in improving attitudes, However, no studies have assessed the preservation of these changes for several months. Most studies on PSD and similar workshops utilized the Children’s Attitude toward Inclusion in Physical Education CAIPE: [13], which presented a scenario of integrating a student with Autism in a ball-game activity. Variations to this scenario have been presented for disability [14]: physical disability and [15]: visual impairment. However, no studies have compared between children’s attitudes to integrating peers with different disabilities in PE.
Recent systematic reviews emphasize the need for rigorous, evidence-based strategies to foster inclusion in PE [3,16]. De Boer et al. [16] highlight that while short-term interventions can influence perceptions, their effects may diminish without reinforcement. Similarly, Nemček [15] and Luna et al. [17] underscore the importance of experiential learning and structured follow-up to maintain positive change.
This study addresses these gaps by evaluating the impact of a brief, PSD-inspired school-based workshop on students’ perceptions toward the inclusion of peers with physical, intellectual, and visual disabilities in PE. By assessing changes immediately and three months post-intervention, this study provides insights into the durability of perceptual shifts and the influence of disability type, contributing to the development of sustainable, inclusive practices in physical education.
2. Materials & Methods
This study examined the immediate effects and their three-month preservation short-following a workshop intervention on students’ perceptions toward inclusion of children with special needs (CWSD) in physical education (PE). Perceptions were assessed at three time points: before the intervention, immediately after, and three months later.
2.1. Participants and Procedure
Seventy-six students (grades 8–11; ages 13–16; 51, boys and 25 girls; Table 1) from four Hebrew-speaking schools in northern and central Israel participated. The sample was obtained through convenience sampling from schools that agreed to participate. We acknowledge that this non-random and geographically limited sample constrains generalizability, and this limitation is noted in the discussion.
Table 1.
Participants’ demographic characteristics.
The intervention consisted of a two-part workshop: (1) a lecture introducing disability awareness and inclusive and Paralympic sports, and (2) a practical session led by a young athlete with a disability (including wheelchair basketball and Boccia). The program was designed to foster empathy and understanding of the challenges faced by peers with disabilities.
Students completed the same questionnaire three times: before the workshop, immediately following the workshop, and after a three-month follow-up period to assess the preservation effect. This study followed a quasi-experimental, single-group pre-test/post-test design with a three-month follow-up measurement, which is commonly used in educational intervention research. To clarify, no direct behavioral observations were conducted during the follow-up; students only completed the same questionnaire again, and no structured observation sheets or additional tools were used. The three-month follow-up phase was conducted in the same schools, enabling assessment of the preservation of attitudinal changes.
Prior to participation, students and their guardians provided informed consent, ensuring ethical compliance with institutional guidelines. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Academic College and the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Education.
2.2. Instrumentation
Each questionnaire comprised 4 pages, with each page presenting a different case description. Case descriptions included children with various disabilities, such as physical disabilities, different types of physical disabilities, sensory disabilities, and mental retardation. At the beginning of each questionnaire. There was a case study that explained the story of the case, the questions were the same for each case study. Each story had a different name. Each case study consisted of 13 questions related to the acceptance of these children in physical education classes, rated on a scale from 1 to 4 (1 = no, 2 = probably not, 3 = probably yes, 4 = yes). The questionnaire referred to 4 cases of different disabilities, 2 different physical disabilities; with walking aid (Dani), with wheelchair (Nati), with visual impairment (Gilad) and with intellectual disability (Yuval).
Psychometric properties: Internal consistency of the questionnaire was verified, with Cronbach’s alpha values exceeding 0.80 for all subscales and the overall scale, indicating high reliability [13,14].
Administration procedure: Questionnaires were administered in classroom settings under researcher supervision to ensure standardization and minimize response bias.
A critical element of this study was the three-month follow-up phase. After the conclusion of the workshops, researchers revisited the schools, and students completed the same questionnaire for the third time. This follow-up aimed to evaluate whether the positive changes observed immediately after the intervention were internalized and persisted over time.
The inclusion of a follow-up phase strengthens this research by assessing the sustainability of the intervention’s effects in the long term. This study contributes significantly to the understanding of students’ perceptions towards the inclusion of children with special needs, providing valuable insights for future interventions and educational practices.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics (M ± SD) were calculated for all responses. Repeated-measures ANOVAs were conducted to evaluate changes in three outcome variables: (1) general inclusion perceptions, (2) willingness to modify rules to promote inclusion, and (3) a total inclusivity score. Within-subject factors included time (Pre, Post, and 3-month follow-up) and scenario (four disability types).
Significant effects were followed by Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons, with partial eta squared (η2) used to estimate effect sizes. Separate ANOVAs were also run for each scenario and each time point to identify specific patterns in responses. Analyses were performed using SPSS v29, with significance set at p < 0.05 and 95% confidence intervals reported [18,19].
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Trends Across Time and Scenarios
Table 2 presents questionnaire scores (M ± SD) across three time points—pre-intervention (Pre), post-intervention (Post), and three-month follow-up—for four inclusion scenarios (students using a walking aid, wheelchair, with visual impairment, and with intellectual disability). The results reflect student responses (n = 76) on:
Table 2.
Mean (SD) scores by scenario and time point.
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- Factor 1: General perceptions toward inclusion
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- Factor 2: Willingness to modify PE game rules
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- Total scale: Combined inclusive perceptions
Overall, general perceptions (Factor 1) improved from Pre to Post in all scenarios, with most gains sustained at follow-up. Willingness to modify rules (Factor 2) showed a temporary post-intervention decline followed by a rebound at follow-up. Total scale scores demonstrated progressive improvement over time, most notably in the intellectual disability and visual impairment scenarios.
3.2. Impact of Time and Scenario
Table 3 summarizes the main effects and interactions for each outcome.
Table 3.
Repeated-Measures ANOVA Results by Outcome.
For Factor 1 (general perceptions toward inclusion), significant effects were found for both time and scenario type. Students’ perceptions significantly improved over the three time points (p < 0.001), and responses varied by scenario (p < 0.001). The interaction between time and scenario was also significant (p = 0.001), indicating that the trajectory of perception change differed by disability type.
In the case of Factor 2 (willingness to modify PE rules), there were also significant main effects of time and scenario type (both p < 0.001), suggesting an overall increase in willingness and differences based on the scenario. However, the time-by-scenario interaction was not significant (p = 0.329), indicating that the upward trend in willingness to include was similar across all disabilities.
Finally, for the total scale score, significant effects of time (p < 0.001) and scenario (p < 0.001) were observed, along with a significant interaction (p = 0.045), indicating both general improvement and some scenario-specific differences in response patterns over time.
3.3. Scenario-Specific Patterns over Time
In the walking aid and wheelchair scenarios, Factor 1 scores rose significantly from Pre to Post and remained elevated at follow-up, though some regression was observed. Visual impairment showed the largest gain in Factor 1 scores (ΔM = 0.27, p < 0.001), sustained at follow-up. Intellectual disability, while showing a smaller initial gain, demonstrated a significant increase by follow-up (p = 0.037), highlighting a delayed but meaningful shift in students’ perceptions.
For Factor 2, all scenarios showed a drop from Pre to Post, followed by a significant rebound at follow-up. The largest follow-up gain was in the intellectual disability scenario (ΔM = 0.33, p < 0.001), suggesting that behavioral willingness took longer to improve. Similar trends were seen for the visual impairment and wheelchair cases, with significant post–follow-up improvements in willingness to adapt PE rules.
Regarding the total scale, all scenarios demonstrated improvement from Post to follow-up. These gains were statistically significant for walking aid (p = 0.049), visual impairment (p = 0.008), and especially intellectual disability (p < 0.001). Although the wheelchair scenario did not reach conventional significance (p = 0.084), its trend aligned with the overall delayed positive effect observed.
3.4. Between-Scenario Differences at Each Time Point
At the Pre stage, students rated their perceptions toward inclusion significantly higher for walking aid, wheelchair, and intellectual disability compared to visual impairment. These patterns persisted at Post, with the visual impairment scenario continuing to receive lower scores across the three measures. Notably, wheelchair and intellectual disability scenarios were rated significantly more favorably than walking aid at this stage, indicating a perceptual shift post-intervention.
By the three-month follow-up, scenario-based differences became less pronounced. Only the comparisons between visual impairment and wheelchair (p = 0.004), and between visual impairment and intellectual disability (p = 0.035), remained significant for Factor 1. For Factor 2 and the total scale, no significant between-scenario differences were found at follow-up, indicating a convergence of inclusive perceptions and intentions across all types of disabilities.
4. Discussion
The inclusion of children with disabilities in educational settings constitutes a broad area of research in the educational field, and consequently, in physical education (PE). Given the limited knowledge available on the conservation of perceptual change following intervention, this study provides new insights into how inclusive PE programs can foster lasting positive perceptions among both teachers and students. Rather than reiterating general principles of inclusion, the findings highlight specific mechanisms through which attitudinal shifts occur and persist over time. These insights can inform the design of future interventions aimed at promoting sustainable inclusion practices in PE, especially by addressing the nuanced challenges faced by children with disabilities in mainstream sports environments.
Similar findings have been reported by Nemček [15], who observed that gender and prior exposure to disability significantly influence attitudes toward inclusion in PE classes, reinforcing the need for tailored interventions.
Similarly, to the current study, the practical experiences described by various researchers [11,17] included interactive sessions where students engaged in various Paralympic sports. The intervention implemented in such practices foster an environment where students may actively participate in adapted sports, learn from Paralympic athletes, and reflect on their experiences through structured debriefing sessions. Therefore, such activities can serve as powerful experiential learning opportunities that are helpful for changing perceptions and promoting perception shifts towards inclusion.
This aligns with findings by Kapsal et al. [3], who emphasized that experiential learning combined with reflective discussion is critical for sustaining attitudinal change in inclusive education contexts.
Given the knowledge gap on conservation of attitudinal change following intervention and the attitudinal variability across disability scenarios, we aimed to broaden the discourse on inclusive education, providing insights that can inform practice, policy, and future research. By highlighting the effectiveness of targeted educational interventions, we hope to encourage adoption of such programs and ultimately foster a more inclusive and supportive environment for all students in physical education classes.
Our results complement previous work by McKay et al. [11,12], who demonstrated that structured disability awareness programs can significantly improve short-term attitudes, though their long-term effects remain underexplored.
The intervention in this study, which included informative as well as practical workshops led by an athlete with a disability, significantly impacted students’ perceptions toward the inclusion of children with disabilities in physical education classes for a longer period of time than has been studied thus far (i.e., 3 months). McKay and colleagues [11] found that PSD programs can challenge conventional perceptions of normalcy and promote a more inclusive perspective among students immediately after the intervention. Additionally, Leake and associates [20] demonstrated that the PSD model can significantly improve the inclusion of CWSN in sports settings through teacher training and awareness programs. This claim is also consistent with the findings of Luna and colleagues [17], who emphasized the importance of integrating PSD and the Sport Education Model to enhance awareness for and the inclusion of disabilities in PE.
Our findings extend these results by showing that positive changes can persist for at least three months, supporting recommendations for longitudinal reinforcement strategies [16].
The practical experiences, such as playing wheelchair basketball and Bocia, provided students with a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by children with disabilities. This aligns with the findings of Luna et al. [17], who emphasized that practical activities can significantly enhance awareness and empathy. Leake et al. [20] further demonstrated that these practical activities, when integrated into the curriculum, can help educators and students internalize the experiences of athletes with disabilities. In their study, practical workshops and direct interactions with Paralympic athletes were an integral part of the PSD program, allowing students to gain a deeper and more empathetic understanding of the challenges and abilities of their peers with disabilities, as implemented in these studies.
Nemček [15] also reported that hands-on activities are particularly effective in reducing stereotypes and fostering empathy among adolescents.
4.1. Retention of Perception Changes
In accordance with previous studies such as that of De Boer et al. [16], who suggested that while initial interventions can have a significant impact, their effects may diminish over time without continued reinforcement, our study incorporated a follow-up stage, three months after the intervention. Our findings indicated for the first time that most of the positive changes in students’ perceptions were maintained, although there was a slight overall decline compared to the immediate post-intervention stage. This finding underscores the importance of sustained engagement and follow-up activities to preserve and strengthen positive perceptions towards inclusion over time.
This supports the conclusions of Kapsal et al. [3], who advocate for periodic reinforcement sessions to maintain inclusive attitudes.
4.2. Analysis of Factors Influencing Perceptions
The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) previously conducted on this scale, in line with Block [13], identified two distinct dimensions:
(1) General perceptions toward inclusion of children with disabilities in physical education, and (2) Willingness to adapt game rules to accommodate these children.
Our findings reaffirm this structure and reveal consistently higher average scores in Factor 1, echoing prior research [11,12,13]. The significant improvements observed in Factor 1 between the pre-intervention and post-intervention stages, as well as the follow-up period, suggest a conservation effect. These results support the notion that targeted interventions can effectively enhance students’ perceptions toward inclusion [12,14,17,20,21].
However, the changes observed in Factor 2 reflect a more nuanced process. Initially, participants’ willingness to modify game rules declined following the intervention, but this was followed by a significant increase at the three-month follow-up. This pattern may indicate a period of cognitive and emotional distress and a subsequent adjustment, during which participants internalized the inclusive principles introduced in the workshops. Potential negative perceptions of game adaptations may indicate fear of reducing fun during the activity, such as has been observed by Kalyvas and Reid [22]. Our findings align with McKay et al. [21], who emphasized the importance of real-life interactions and sustained exposure for the long-term adoption of inclusive practices.
This nuanced trajectory is consistent with findings by Nemček [15], who noted that attitudes toward rule modifications often require extended exposure and reinforcement to stabilize.
Importantly, the scenario-by-time analysis revealed that not all inclusion scenarios were perceived equally. For example, the visual impairment scenario consistently received lower scores across all factors and time points, particularly in Factor 2, suggesting that participants found this type of disability more challenging to accommodate. In contrast, the intellectual disability scenario elicited more favorable responses, especially in the willingness to modify game rules and in the total scale, both immediately post-intervention and at follow-up.
These differences are not merely statistical, they carry practical implications. We suggest that certain types of disabilities should be targeted with more focused efforts to shift perceptions, particularly those represented by scenarios like Visual impairment, where resistance to inclusion was more persistent. This insight represents a key contribution of the current study: while general perceptions can be improved broadly, tailored interventions may be necessary to address specific prejudice or discomfort associated with particular disability types.
Finally, the significant differences in the sub-scales and the overall questionnaire scores across the three measurement times underscore the intervention’s effectiveness. The initial post-intervention dip, followed by a rebound at follow-up in willingness to modify PE rules (Factor 2), highlights the importance of addressing adaptation strategies and adding ongoing reinforcement and longitudinal support to sustain inclusive change. This trajectory reaffirms the recommendations of Kapsal et al. [3] that sustained engagement is essential for enduring perception transformation.
4.3. Implications for Future Interventions
Building on previous recommendations [17,20], our study reinforces the need for multi-phase interventions that combine practical workshops, reflective discussions, and sustained follow-up activities.
Based on the results of this study, we suggest several implications for future interventions aimed at promoting the inclusion of CWSN in physical education: (a) Practical workshops guided by Paralympic athlete are helpful to maintain perception change at least for three months; (b) To strengthen attitudinal change, interventions should include follow-up activities and sustained engagement beyond the initial program; (c) interventions should strengthen the exposure to specific adaptation strategies in order to reduce potential negative students’ perceptions and need to be tailored to address specific scenario-related contextual factors. Future programs should emphasize practices that allow students to experience the challenges faced by CWSD while continuing to have fun in their sports activities. In the context of schools and educational institutions, they should support policies and infrastructures that promote the inclusion of CWSN in physical education. This includes providing the necessary resources and support for adapted sports and inclusive activities.
4.4. Study Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
A small and geographically limited sample (n = 76) may restrict the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, we explicitly acknowledge that the non-random sampling method further limits generalizability. The short follow-up period (three months) limits insights into the long-term effects of the intervention. The exclusive reliance on self-report questionnaires may have introduced social desirability bias. Future studies should incorporate additional data sources (e.g., observations, interviews) to reduce this bias and explore demographic factors such as gender, age, cultural background, and prior acquaintance with disability.
Future research should employ more rigorous experimental designs, including the use of control groups, and extend the scope to involve teachers and parents. It is also recommended to examine the link between students’ knowledge, affective dispositions, and actual behavior in school settings. Larger and more diverse samples and longer follow-up periods are needed to strengthen generalizability. Interventions should be adapted to different cultural and social contexts, and sustained teacher training should be emphasized to promote inclusive practices through experiential learning. Finally, exploring the relationship between teacher training and the development of positive perceptions among students may provide valuable insights for fostering long-term change.
These recommendations echo those of Kapsal et al. [3] and Nemček [15], who stress the importance of longitudinal designs and multi-stakeholder involvement in inclusive education research.
5. Conclusions
The intervention conducted in this study had a significant and positive impact on students’ perceptions toward the inclusion of CWSN in physical education classes. Statistical analysis confirmed these improvements: general perceptions (Factor 1) increased significantly across time (F(2,150) = 9.300, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.110), and total inclusivity scores showed progressive gains (F(2,150) = 12.522, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.143). While most perception changes were maintained at the three-month follow-up, a notable decline was observed in students’ willingness to implement specific game adaptations immediately after the intervention, followed by a rebound at follow-up (F(2,150) = 12.065, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.139). This pattern suggests that raising awareness through storytelling and general information about Paralympic sports may not be sufficient to sustain behavioral intentions over time. Therefore, future interventions should incorporate practical components that focus on how to adapt games and rules in inclusive settings. Workshops that include hands-on practice and guided simulations of adaptation scenarios—such as those successfully implemented with student groups in previous initiatives—may enhance the effectiveness and sustainability of perception change.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, M.S. and Y.H.; methodology, M.S. and Y.H.; software, M.S. and Y.H.; validation, M.S. and Y.H.; formal analysis, M.S. and Y.H.; investigation, M.S. and Y.H.; resources, M.S. and Y.H.; data curation, M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S.; writing—review and editing, M.S. and Y.H.; visualization, M.S. and Y.H.; supervision, M.S.; project administration, M.S.; funding acquisition, M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the President’s Fund of the Levinsky-Wingate Academic College for the year 2023, grant number 23WR11. The APC was funded by the President’s Fund of the Levinsky-Wingate Academic College.
Institutional Review Board Statement
This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Levinsky-Wingate Academic College (protocol code 379, date of approval: 27 November 2022) and by the Chief Scientist of the Ministry of Education (protocol code 12929, date of approval: 26 January 2023).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.
Data Availability Statement
The data supporting the findings of this study are available at the following link: https://levinsky-my.sharepoint.com/:x:/g/personal/mahmoods_l-w_ac_il/IQBcZQRRAR39Q6DIOncT-xeAAc_wUvXdiQI6cf_w7HRAIjY?rtime=as28y2g53kg (accessed on 10 December 2025). Due to privacy and ethical restrictions, the dataset is accessible only to authorized users upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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