A Short Review on the Microstructure, Transformation Behavior and Functional Properties of NiTi Shape Memory Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Microstructure
- (1)
- Ni loss by evaporation. Due to the high energy input from the laser, the evaporation of alloying elements from the melt pool will occur during SLM [42,53,54]. As shown in Figure 2, at elevated temperatures, the equilibrium vapor pressure of Ni is much higher than that of Ti, since Ni has a lower boiling point (3186 K) as compared with Ti (3560 K). As a result, the loss of Ni, i.e., decreasing of Ni/Ti ratio, will occur during SLM [55,56]. Moreover, an increase of Ni loss is expected with the increase of energy density [57]. It is well known that the transformation temperature of NiTi alloy depends highly on the Ni content [1,58]. Therefore, the Ni evaporation during SLM may lead to a remarkable increase of martensite transformation temperatures (MTTs). The melt pool behavior significantly affects the element evaporation, as discussed in the model that was developed by Klassen et al. [59]. Therefore, dedicated experiments or simulation work are highly required to study the Ni evaporation under different SLM conditions.
- (2)
- Oxygen pickup. Since Ti is very active, pickup of oxygen will occur during SLM of NiTi alloys [45,47,60]. The oxygen pickup will lead to the following two effects: (1) binding with Ti (e.g., forming Ti4Ni2O [60,61,62]), resulting in an increase of effective Ni/Ti ratio and thus leading to the decrease of MTTs; (2) influencing significantly the mechanical properties of SLM fabricated NiTi parts. The latter effect depends on the size, morphology, and distribution of the oxides. Walker et al. [47] reported an increase of oxygen impurities with increasing energy density, as shown in Figure 3a. Therefore, it is essential to control the oxygen level in the building chamber to improve the repeatability in both the transformation behaviour and functional properties of SLM fabricated NiTi alloys. Many studies have shown that with proper process control (e.g., using the constant fresh argon flow during SLM [63]), the SLM fabricated NiTi parts show low oxygen content and meet the requirements (<500 ppm) prescribed in the ASTM F 2063 standard (ASTM International, Standard Specification for Wrought Nickel-Titanium Shape Memory Alloys for Medical Devices and Surgical Implants) [24,60,63,64]. The pickup of carbon and nitrogen also occurs during SLM, as shown in Figure 3b,c [47].
- (3)
- Precipitation. During SLM, the fabricating parts are heated up due to the heat transferred from the melt pool and heat affected zone. In Ni-rich NiTi alloys, the precipitation of Ni4Ti3 phase may occur at a temperature as low as 473 K [65,66]. As a result, during fabricating Ni-rich NiTi parts, the formation of Ni4Ti3 precipitates may occur, which will significantly affect both the phase transformation behavior and mechanical performance of NiTi alloys. The Ni4Ti3 precipitation in SLM fabricated Ni-rich NiTi parts have been proposed in many studies [42,43,56,63,67]. Ni4Ti3 precipitates with the size <2 nm have been observed by means of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy [42,56]. As the presence of N4Ti3 particles significantly influences the performance of NiTi alloys [1], it is essential to study the size and distribution of Ni4Ti3 particles under different SLM process conditions. The formation of other precipitates e.g., Ti2Ni, was also reported [42,57,68,69].
- (4)
- Strong texture. During SLM, the grains grow along the direction of the maximum temperature gradient, which is normally the same direction as the build direction (BD) [28]. The easy growth direction of the body centered cubic (BCC) crystals is <100> [28]. At elevated temperatures, near equiatomic NiTi alloys are in a B2 ordered austenite phase with BCC crystal structure [1]. Therefore, a strong <100>B2//BD (build direction) can be developed in SLM fabricated NiTi parts [43,67,70]. The strong texture will significantly influence the functional properties of NiTi alloys, as the transformation strain depends strongly on the crystallographic orientation [1]. It has been frequently reported that the texture characteristics (e.g., intensity or type of texture) depends highly on the SLM process conditions [28,71]. Therefore, it is suggested that future work is required to study the effect of the SLM process conditions on the texture characteristic of NiTi alloys and its influence on the functional properties.
- (5)
- High density of dislocations. High density of dislocations could be introduced by SLM, due to the rapid cooling [42,72,73,74]. It has recently been reported that the dislocation network introduced by SLM could improve both the strength and ductility of the 316 L stainless steels, i.e., breaking the strength-ductility trade-off [72,73]. High density of dislocations has been reported in the SLM fabricated NiTi parts [42,56]. Moreover, the density of dislocations depends highly on the SLM process. For instance, Ma et al. [42] reported that the density of dislocations decreases with the decrease of hatch spacing from 35 to 120 μm, which probably is due to the recovery of dislocations that is caused by more re-melting and re-heating cycles when producing with smaller hatch spacing.
- (6)
- Residual stresses. The locally melted metal is deposited on a relatively cold substrate (or previously consolidated layers), leading to a steep thermal gradient, which can surpass 107 K·s−1 and 107 K·m−1 [75]. As a result, the residual stress could be built up inside the SLM fabricated parts [28,76,77,78]. The accumulated residual stress can cause distortion, geometric failure, delamination of layers, deterioration of fatigue and fracture resistance, as well as the increase of anisotropy of the mechanical properties of SLM fabricated parts [28,76,77]. According to the Clausius-Clapeyron type dependence of MTTs on stress [79], the accumulation of residual stresses will assist the martensite transformation.
- (7)
- Inhomogeneous grain size distribution. Due to the complex thermal history, the microstructure with inhomogeneous grain size distribution is normally observed in the SLM fabricated parts [57,71,80,81]. The mechanical performance will be affected remarkably by the inhomogeneous microstructure [81,82,83].
- (8)
- Microstructural heterogeneity. The materials at different position of SLM fabricated parts will experience a different thermal history. For instance, the first deposited layers will experience a fast cooling due to the cold substrate, as well as more reheating cycles, as compared with the top layers. Therefore, the heterogeneous microstructure (e.g., inhomogeneous Ni distribution, thermal stress state, grain size) is developed in the SLM fabricated parts [24,84]. The microstructural heterogeneities will significantly affect the transformation behavior and mechanical properties of SLM that are produced NiTi parts [84].
3. Phase Transformation Behavior
4. Tensile Properties
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- SLM is a complex physical metallurgical process, which leads to the complex microstructural changes, including the variation of composition, formation of precipitations and dislocations, development of strong texture and residual stresses, and the microstructural heterogeneity. Systematic work is required to study the interrelationship between SLM process and resulted microstructure and related functional properties.
- (2)
- The phase transformation behavior are very sensitive to the SLM process conditions, even when fabricating under similar energy density level. Although the interrelationship between the SLM process and the transformation behavior of NiTi alloys is not clear yet, it may provide an effective way to tailoring the transformation temperature of NiTi alloys by tuning the SLM process parameters.
- (3)
- The compression properties of SLM fabricated NiTi alloys are comparable with the NiTi alloys produced via conventional approaches. However, the SLM fabricated NiTi alloys normally show a total elongation < 6% under tension. The origin of the brittleness of SLM fabricated NiTi alloy is not clear yet. Future work is highly required to study the formation of defects (e.g., voids, micro-cracks) under different SLM process conditions, and their influence on the functional performance of SLM fabricated NiTi alloys.
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Wang, X.; Kustov, S.; Van Humbeeck, J. A Short Review on the Microstructure, Transformation Behavior and Functional Properties of NiTi Shape Memory Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting. Materials 2018, 11, 1683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091683
Wang X, Kustov S, Van Humbeeck J. A Short Review on the Microstructure, Transformation Behavior and Functional Properties of NiTi Shape Memory Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting. Materials. 2018; 11(9):1683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091683
Chicago/Turabian StyleWang, Xiebin, Sergey Kustov, and Jan Van Humbeeck. 2018. "A Short Review on the Microstructure, Transformation Behavior and Functional Properties of NiTi Shape Memory Alloys Fabricated by Selective Laser Melting" Materials 11, no. 9: 1683. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11091683