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Volume 19
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J. Eye Mov. Res., Volume 19, Issue 1 (February 2026) – 23 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): This cover illustrates a conceptual integration of eye tracking and machine learning in advanced consumer behaviour analysis. The wireframe face represents the structured capture of gaze data, while the laser beams symbolise real-time fixation tracking and attention mapping. Beneath the surface, interconnected nodes evoke implicit behavioural data, later enriched through machine learning-based demographic inference (age, gender, ethnicity) in a privacy-conscious manner. Rather than depicting identity, the image represents analytical structure—how visual attention, temporal patterns, and inferred demographic features converge to produce interpretable behavioural insights. The artwork reflects the article’s core contribution: a multimodal, ethically designed framework linking gaze dynamics and computational intelligence. View this paper
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21 pages, 1923 KB  
Review
Mapping Eye-Tracking Research in Human–Computer Interaction: A Science-Mapping and Content-Analysis Study
by Adem Korkmaz
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010023 - 12 Feb 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2093
Abstract
Eye tracking has become a central method in human–computer interaction (HCI), supported by advances in sensing technologies and AI-based gaze analysis. Despite this rapid growth, a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of eye-tracking research across the broader HCI landscape remains lacking. This study combines [...] Read more.
Eye tracking has become a central method in human–computer interaction (HCI), supported by advances in sensing technologies and AI-based gaze analysis. Despite this rapid growth, a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of eye-tracking research across the broader HCI landscape remains lacking. This study combines records from Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus to analyse 1033 publications on eye tracking in HCI published between 2020 and 2025. After merging and deduplicating the datasets, we conducted bibliometric network analyses (keyword co-occurrence, co-citation, co-authorship, and source mapping) using VOSviewer and performed a qualitative content analysis of the 50 most-cited papers. The literature is dominated by journal articles and conference papers produced by small- to medium-sized research teams (mean: 3.9 authors per paper; h-index: 29). Keyword and overlay visualisations reveal four principal research axes: deep-learning-based gaze estimation; XR-related interaction paradigms within HCI; cognitive load and human factors; and usability- and accessibility-oriented interface design. The most-cited studies focus on gaze interaction in immersive environments, deep learning for gaze estimation, multimodal interaction, and physiological approaches to assessing cognitive load. Overall, the findings indicate that eye tracking in HCI is evolving from a measurement-oriented technique into a core enabling technology that supports interaction design, cognitive assessment, accessibility, and ethical considerations such as privacy. This review identifies research gaps and outlines future directions for benchmarking practices, real-world deployments, and privacy-preserving gaze analytics in HCI. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Horizons and Recent Advances in Eye-Tracking Technology)
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20 pages, 1914 KB  
Article
Influence of Multimodal AR-HUD Navigation Prompt Design on Driving Behavior at F-Type-5 M Intersections
by Ziqi Liu, Zhengxing Yang and Yifan Du
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010022 - 11 Feb 2026
Viewed by 766
Abstract
In complex urban traffic environments, the design of multimodal prompts in augmented reality head-up displays (AR-HUDs) plays a critical role in driving safety and operational efficiency. Despite growing interest in audiovisual navigation assistance, empirical evidence remains limited regarding when prompts should be delivered [...] Read more.
In complex urban traffic environments, the design of multimodal prompts in augmented reality head-up displays (AR-HUDs) plays a critical role in driving safety and operational efficiency. Despite growing interest in audiovisual navigation assistance, empirical evidence remains limited regarding when prompts should be delivered and whether visual and auditory information should remain temporally aligned. To address this gap, this study aims to examine how audiovisual prompt timing and prompt mode influence driving behavior in AR-HUD navigation systems at complex F-type-5 m intersections through a within-subject experimental design. A 2 (prompt mode: synchronized vs. asynchronous) × 3 (prompt timing: −1000 m, −600 m, −400 m) design was employed to assess driver response time, situational awareness, and eye-movement measures, including average fixation duration and fixation count. The results showed clear main effects of both prompt mode and prompt timing. Compared with asynchronous prompts, synchronized prompts consistently resulted in shorter response times, reduced visual demand, and higher situational awareness. Driving performance also improved as prompt timing shifted closer to the intersection, from −1000 m to −400 m. But no significant interaction effects were found, suggesting that prompt mode and prompt timing can be treated as relatively independent design factors. In addition, among the six experimental conditions, the −400 m synchronized condition yielded the most favorable overall performance, whereas the −1000 m asynchronous condition performed worst. These findings indicate that in time-critical and low-tolerance scenarios, such as F-type-5 m intersections, near-distance synchronized multimodal prompts should be prioritized. This study provides empirical support for optimizing prompt timing and cross-modal temporal alignment in AR-HUD systems and offers actionable implications for interface and timing design. Full article
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19 pages, 832 KB  
Article
Influence of Stimulus Layout and Social Presence on Deception-Related Eye Movements and Blinks in the Concealed Information Test
by Valentin Foucher and Anke Huckauf
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010021 - 11 Feb 2026
Viewed by 940
Abstract
Over the past decades, eye movements and blinks have been integrated into Concealed Information Test (CIT) paradigms as indicators of deception. Recent findings suggested that fixation patterns in CITs depend on stimulus layout, particularly the distinction between sequential and simultaneous stimulus presentation. In [...] Read more.
Over the past decades, eye movements and blinks have been integrated into Concealed Information Test (CIT) paradigms as indicators of deception. Recent findings suggested that fixation patterns in CITs depend on stimulus layout, particularly the distinction between sequential and simultaneous stimulus presentation. In addition, the impact of social presence on deceptive eye movements, critical for application of the CIT in real-world social settings, remains insufficiently examined. The present study addresses these issues through two experiments. In both, participants selected a card and had to reveal, conceal, or fake its value while all possible cards were displayed in pairs. Experiment 1 examined whether deceptive intentions could be differentiated using fixations and blinks, and extended previous findings on the effect of stimulus layout. Experiment 2 assessed the stability of deception-related eye movements and blinks across various levels of social presence (without, per video, being observed by a real person). Our findings replicate effects previously observed with simultaneous stimulus presentation of more cards, demonstrating how stimulus layout modulates deception-related eye movement patterns in CITs. The levels of social presence realised in this study did not significantly alter these patterns, indicating that deception-related eye movements and blinks in CITs remain stable under passive social presence. Full article
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15 pages, 2307 KB  
Article
An Open-Source Horizontal Strabismus Simulator as an Evaluation Platform for Monocular Gaze Estimation Using Deep Learning Models
by Shumpei Takinami, Yuka Morita, Jun Seita and Tetsuro Oshika
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010020 - 9 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1708
Abstract
Strabismus affects 2–4% of the global population, with horizontal cases accounting for more than 90%. Automated screening using monocular gaze estimation technology shows promise for early detection. However, existing models assume normal binocular vision, and their applicability to strabismus remains unvalidated due to [...] Read more.
Strabismus affects 2–4% of the global population, with horizontal cases accounting for more than 90%. Automated screening using monocular gaze estimation technology shows promise for early detection. However, existing models assume normal binocular vision, and their applicability to strabismus remains unvalidated due to the lack of evaluation platforms capable of reproducing disconjugate eye movements with known ground-truth angles. To address this gap, we developed an open-source, low-cost (approximately 200 USD) horizontal strabismus simulator. The simulator features two independently controllable artificial eyeballs mounted on a two-axis gimbal mechanism with servo motors and gyro sensors for real-time angle measurement. Mechanical accuracy achieved a mean absolute error of less than 0.1° across all axes, well below the clinical detection threshold of 1 prism diopter (≈0.57°). An evaluation of three representative AI models (Single Eye, GazeNet, and EyeNet) revealed estimation errors of 6.44–8.75°, substantially exceeding the clinical target of 2.8°. At this error level, small-angle strabismus (<15 prism diopters) would likely be missed, underscoring the need for strabismus-specific model development. Moreover, rapid accuracy degradation was observed beyond ±15° gaze angles. This platform establishes baseline performance metrics and provides a foundation for advancing gaze estimation technology for strabismus screening. Full article
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19 pages, 4207 KB  
Article
The Impact of 3D Interactive Prompts on College Students’ Learning Outcomes in Desktop Virtual Learning Environments: A Study Based on Eye-Tracking Experiments
by Xinyi Wu, Xiangen Wu, Weixing Hu and Jian Sun
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010019 - 5 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1174
Abstract
Despite the increasing adoption of desktop virtual reality (VR) in higher education, the specific instructional efficacy of 3D interactive prompts remains inadequately understood. This study examines how such prompts—specifically dynamic spatial annotations and 3D animated demonstrations—influence learning outcomes within a desktop virtual learning [...] Read more.
Despite the increasing adoption of desktop virtual reality (VR) in higher education, the specific instructional efficacy of 3D interactive prompts remains inadequately understood. This study examines how such prompts—specifically dynamic spatial annotations and 3D animated demonstrations—influence learning outcomes within a desktop virtual learning environment (DVLE). Employing a quasi-experimental design integrated with eye-tracking and multimodal learning analytics, university students were assigned to either an experimental group (DVLE with 3D prompts) or a control group (basic DVLE) while completing physics tasks. Data collection encompassed eye-tracking metrics (fixation heatmaps, pupil diameter and dwell time), post-test performance (assessing knowledge comprehension and spatial problem-solving), and cognitive load ratings. Results indicated that the experimental group achieved significantly superior learning outcomes, particularly in spatial understanding and dynamic reasoning, alongside optimized visual attention patterns—characterized by shorter initial fixation latency and prolonged fixation on key 3D elements—and reduced cognitive load. Eye-tracking metrics were positively correlated with post-test scores, confirming that 3D prompts enhance learning by improving spatial attention guidance. These findings demonstrate that embedding 3D interactive prompts in DVLEs effectively directs visual attention, alleviates cognitive burden, and improves learning efficiency, offering valuable implications for the design of immersive educational settings. Full article
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17 pages, 1232 KB  
Article
The Influence of Noise Perception and Parent-Rated Developmental Characteristics on White Noise Benefits in Children
by Erica Jostrup, Marcus Nyström, Göran B. W. Söderlund, Emma Claesdotter-Knutsson, Peik Gustafsson and Pia Tallberg
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010018 - 5 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1154
Abstract
White noise has been proposed to enhance cognitive performance in children with ADHD, but findings are inconsistent, and benefits vary across tasks and individuals. Such variability suggests that diagnostic comparisons may overlook meaningful developmental differences. This exploratory study examined whether developmental characteristics and [...] Read more.
White noise has been proposed to enhance cognitive performance in children with ADHD, but findings are inconsistent, and benefits vary across tasks and individuals. Such variability suggests that diagnostic comparisons may overlook meaningful developmental differences. This exploratory study examined whether developmental characteristics and subjective evaluations of auditory and visual white noise predicted performance changes in two eye-movement tasks: Prolonged Fixation (PF) and Memory-Guided Saccades (MGS). Children with varying degrees of ADHD symptoms completed both tasks under noise and no-noise conditions, and noise benefit scores were calculated as the performance difference between conditions. Overall, white-noise effects were small and dependent on noise modality and task. In the PF task, large parent-rated perceptual difficulties and high visual noise discomfort were associated with improved performance under noise. In the MGS task, poor motor skills predicted visual noise benefit, whereas large visual noise discomfort predicted reduced noise benefit. These findings suggest that beneficial effects of white noise are influenced by developmental characteristics and subjective perception in task-dependent ways. The results highlight the need for individualized, transdiagnostic approaches in future noise research and challenge the notion of white noise as categorically beneficial for ADHD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Digital Advances in Binocular Vision and Eye Movement Assessment)
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22 pages, 3999 KB  
Article
Eye Movement Classification Using Neuromorphic Vision Sensors
by Khadija Iddrisu, Waseem Shariff, Maciej Stec, Noel O’Connor and Suzanne Little
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010017 - 4 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1312
Abstract
Eye movement classification, particularly the identification of fixations and saccades, plays a vital role in advancing our understanding of neurological functions and cognitive processing. Conventional modalities of data, such as RGB webcams, often face limitations such as motion blur, latency and susceptibility to [...] Read more.
Eye movement classification, particularly the identification of fixations and saccades, plays a vital role in advancing our understanding of neurological functions and cognitive processing. Conventional modalities of data, such as RGB webcams, often face limitations such as motion blur, latency and susceptibility to noise. Neuromorphic Vision Sensors, also known as event cameras (ECs), capture pixel-level changes asynchronously and at a high temporal resolution, making them well suited for detecting the swift transitions inherent to eye movements. However, the resulting data are sparse, which makes them less well suited for use with conventional algorithms. Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) are gaining attention due to their discrete spatio-temporal spike mechanism ideally suited for sparse data. These networks offer a biologically inspired computational paradigm capable of modeling the temporal dynamics captured by event cameras. This study validates the use of Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) with event cameras for efficient eye movement classification. We manually annotated the EV-Eye dataset, the largest publicly available event-based eye-tracking benchmark, into sequences of saccades and fixations, and we propose a convolutional SNN architecture operating directly on spike streams. Our model achieves an accuracy of 94% and a precision of 0.92 across annotated data from 10 users. As the first work to apply SNNs to eye movement classification using event data, we benchmark our approach against spiking baselines such as SpikingVGG and SpikingDenseNet, and additionally provide a detailed computational complexity comparison between SNN and ANN counterparts. Our results highlight the efficiency and robustness of SNNs for event-based vision tasks, with over one order of magnitude improvement in computational efficiency, with implications for fast and low-power neurocognitive diagnostic systems. Full article
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21 pages, 309 KB  
Article
Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) and Word Reading Fluency in Early School-Aged Children: A Pilot Eye-Tracking Study
by Alisa Baron, Alexia Martins, Gavino Puggioni and Vanessa Harwood
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010016 - 4 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1665
Abstract
Fluent word reading is a key literacy skill, yet the full extent of the oculomotor underpinnings in developing readers remains unknown. Rapid automatized naming (RAN) is a useful clinical measure that has been shown to predict word reading fluency. Here we use RAN [...] Read more.
Fluent word reading is a key literacy skill, yet the full extent of the oculomotor underpinnings in developing readers remains unknown. Rapid automatized naming (RAN) is a useful clinical measure that has been shown to predict word reading fluency. Here we use RAN scores to predict early, mid, and late local stages of word reading as measured by eye tracking in children who are at a critical time in their literacy development. Thirty-three children participated in two RAN tasks (rapid letter naming (RLN) and rapid digit naming (RDN)) and an eye-tracking task, which included sentence-level reading with an embedded target word. The eye-tracking measures of first fixation duration, regression path duration, and total word reading time were used as early, mid, and late local measures, respectively. RLN and RDN significantly predicted only the mid-stage of the reading process (regression path duration). Faster RLN and RDN times were associated with briefer regressions from target words. Preliminary results link behavioral RAN performance to a mid-stage oculomotor variable, indicating that children with slower RAN times may exhibit longer regressions during reading, suggesting possible difficulties with the integration of phonological processing skills. Full article
16 pages, 2918 KB  
Article
Analysis of Saccade Characteristics During Fusional Vergence Tests in Normal Binocular Vision Participants
by Cristina Rovira-Gay, Clara Mestre, Marc Argilés and Jaume Pujol
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010015 - 3 Feb 2026
Viewed by 824
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to analyze, characterize, and compare the measurements of saccades that occurred during the positive and negative fusional vergence test (PFV and NFV, respectively) as a function of the disparity vergence demand. Thirty-four participants’ PFV and NFV amplitudes [...] Read more.
The purpose of the study was to analyze, characterize, and compare the measurements of saccades that occurred during the positive and negative fusional vergence test (PFV and NFV, respectively) as a function of the disparity vergence demand. Thirty-four participants’ PFV and NFV amplitudes were measured in a haploscopic setup, recording eye movements with an Eyelink 1000 Plus (SR Research). The visual stimulus was a column of letters. Break and recovery points were determined objectively offline, and saccades were detected with a velocity-threshold-based method. A total of 13,103 and 14,381 saccades were detected during the measurement of the PFV and NFV ranges, respectively. Saccades followed the main sequence (ρ = 0.97, p < 0.001). The distributions of saccadic amplitudes during PFV and NFV differed significantly (U = 4.28, p < 0.001). The amplitude of saccades that occurred while fusion was maintained (median (IQR) 0.73 (0.92) deg) was significantly smaller than that of saccades during diplopia (2.10 (3.90) deg) (U = −75.63, p < 0.001). The distributions of saccade direction during the measurement of PFV and NFV amplitudes were statistically significantly different (p < 0.01). These findings contribute to a better understanding of how the visual system adjusts saccades in response to different disparity vergence demand during fusional vergence amplitudes evaluation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Horizons and Recent Advances in Eye-Tracking Technology)
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20 pages, 1389 KB  
Article
Visual Evaluation Strategies in Art Image Viewing: An Eye-Tracking Comparison of Art-Educated and Non-Art Participants
by Adem Korkmaz, Sevinc Gülsecen and Grigor Mihaylov
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010014 - 30 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1445
Abstract
Understanding how tacit knowledge embedded in visual materials is accessed and utilized during evaluation tasks remains a key challenge in human–computer interaction and visual expertise research. Although eye-tracking studies have identified systematic differences between experts and novices, findings remain inconsistent, particularly in art-related [...] Read more.
Understanding how tacit knowledge embedded in visual materials is accessed and utilized during evaluation tasks remains a key challenge in human–computer interaction and visual expertise research. Although eye-tracking studies have identified systematic differences between experts and novices, findings remain inconsistent, particularly in art-related visual evaluation contexts. This study examines whether tacit aspects of visual evaluation can be inferred from gaze behavior by comparing individuals with and without formal art education. Visual evaluation was assessed using a structured, prompt-based task in which participants inspected artistic images and responded to items targeting specific visual elements. Eye movements were recorded using a screen-based eye-tracking system. Areas of Interest (AOIs) corresponding to correct-answer regions were defined a priori based on expert judgment and item prompts. Both AOI-level metrics (e.g., fixation count, mean, and total visit and gaze durations) and image-level metrics (e.g., fixation count, saccade count, and pupil size) were analyzed using appropriate parametric and non-parametric statistical tests. The results showed that participants with an art-education background produced more fixations within AOIs, exhibited longer mean and total AOI visit and gaze durations, and demonstrated lower saccade counts than participants without art education. These patterns indicate more systematic and goal-directed gaze behavior during visual evaluation, suggesting that formal art education may shape tacit visual evaluation strategies. The findings also highlight the potential of eye tracking as a methodological tool for studying expertise-related differences in visual evaluation processes. Full article
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25 pages, 4862 KB  
Article
Including Eye Movement in the Assessment of Physical Fatigue Under Different Loading Types and Road Slopes
by Yixuan Wei, Xueli Wen, Shu Wang, Lanyun Zhang, Jianwu Chen and Longzhe Jin
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010013 - 27 Jan 2026
Viewed by 831
Abstract
Background: Emergency rescuers frequently carry heavy equipment for extended periods, making musculoskeletal disorders a major occupational concern. Loading type and road slope play important roles in inducing physical fatigue; however, the assessment of physical fatigue under these conditions remains limited. Aim: [...] Read more.
Background: Emergency rescuers frequently carry heavy equipment for extended periods, making musculoskeletal disorders a major occupational concern. Loading type and road slope play important roles in inducing physical fatigue; however, the assessment of physical fatigue under these conditions remains limited. Aim: This study aims to investigate physical fatigue under different loading types and road slope conditions using both electromyography (EMG) and eye movement metrics. In particular, this work focuses on eye movement metrics as a non-contact data source in comparison with EMG, which remains largely unexplored for physical fatigue assessment. Method: Prolonged load-bearing walking was simulated to replicate the physical demands experienced by emergency rescuers. Eighteen male participants completed experimental trials incorporating four loading types and three road slope conditions. Results: (1) Loading type and road slope significantly affected EMG activity, eye movement metrics, and perceptual responses. (2) Saccade time (ST), saccade speed (SS), and saccade amplitude (SA) exhibited significant differences in their rates of change across three stages defined by perceptual fatigue. ST, SS, and SA showed strong correlations with subjective fatigue throughout the entire load-bearing walking process, whereas pupil diameter demonstrated only a moderate correlation with subjective ratings. (3) Eye movement metrics were incorporated into multivariate quadratic regression models to quantify physical fatigue under different loading types and road slope conditions. Conclusions: These findings enhance the understanding of physical fatigue mechanisms by demonstrating the potential of eye movement metrics as non-invasive indicators for multidimensional fatigue monitoring in work environments involving varying loading types and road slopes. Full article
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17 pages, 1688 KB  
Article
A Comparison of Centroid Tracking and Image Phase for Improved Optokinetic Nystagmus Detection
by Jason Turuwhenua, Mohammad Norouzifard, Zaw LinTun, Misty Edmonds, Rebecca Findlay, Joanna Black and Benjamin Thompson
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010012 - 26 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1039
Abstract
Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) is an involuntary sawtooth eye movement that occurs in the presence of a drifting stimulus. Our experience is that low-amplitude/short-duration OKN can challenge the limits of our commercially available Pupil Neon eye-tracker, leading to false negative OKN detection results. We [...] Read more.
Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) is an involuntary sawtooth eye movement that occurs in the presence of a drifting stimulus. Our experience is that low-amplitude/short-duration OKN can challenge the limits of our commercially available Pupil Neon eye-tracker, leading to false negative OKN detection results. We sought to investigate whether such instances could be remediated. We compared automated OKN detection using: (1) the gaze signal from the Pupil Neon (OKN-G), (2) centroid tracking (OKN-C), and (3) an image-phase-based “motion microscopy” technique (OKN-MMIC). The OKN-C and OKN-MMIC methods were also tested as a remediated step after a negative OKN-G result (OKN-C-STEP, OKN-MMIC-STEP). To validate the approaches adults (n = 22) with normal visual acuity was measured whilst viewing trials of an OKN induction stimulus shown at four levels of visibility. Confusion matrices and performance measures were determined for a “main” dataset that included all methods, and a “retest” set, which contained instances where centroid tracking failed. For the main set, all tested methods improved upon OKN-G by Matthew’s correlation coefficient (0.80–0.85 vs. 0.76), sensitivity (0.89–0.95 vs. 0.85), and accuracy (0.91–0.93 vs. 0.88); but only OKN-C yielded better specificity (0.90–0.96 vs. 0.95). For the retest set, MMIC and MMIC-STEP methods consistently improved upon the performance of OKN-G across all measures. Full article
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14 pages, 15350 KB  
Article
Inspecting the Retina: Oculomotor Patterns and Accuracy in Fundus Image Interpretation by Novice Versus Experienced Eye Care Practitioners
by Suraj Upadhyaya
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010011 - 21 Jan 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 601
Abstract
Visual search behavior, influenced by expertise, prior knowledge, training, and visual fatigue, is crucial in ophthalmic diagnostics. This study investigates differences in eye-tracking strategies between novice and experienced eye care practitioners during fundus image interpretation. Forty-seven participants, including 37 novices (first- to fourth-year [...] Read more.
Visual search behavior, influenced by expertise, prior knowledge, training, and visual fatigue, is crucial in ophthalmic diagnostics. This study investigates differences in eye-tracking strategies between novice and experienced eye care practitioners during fundus image interpretation. Forty-seven participants, including 37 novices (first- to fourth-year optometry students) and 10 experienced optometrists (≥2 years of experience), viewed 20 fundus images (10 normal, 10 abnormal) while their eye movements were recorded using an Eyelink1000 Plus gaze tracker (2000 Hz). Diagnostic and laterality accuracy were assessed, and statistical analyses were conducted using Sigma Plot 12.0. Results showed that experienced practitioners had significantly higher diagnostic accuracy (83 ± 6.3%) than novices (70 ± 12.9%, p < 0.005). Significant differences in oculomotor behavior were observed, including median latency (p < 0.001), while no significant differences were found in median peak velocity (p = 0.11) or laterality accuracy (p = 0.97). Diagnostic accuracy correlated with fixation count in novices (r = 0.54, p < 0.001), while laterality accuracy correlated with total dwelling time (r = −0.62, p < 0.005). The experienced practitioners demonstrated systematic and focused visual search patterns, whereas the novices exhibited unorganized scan paths. Enhancing training with visual feedback could improve fundus image analysis accuracy in novice clinicians. Full article
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34 pages, 7495 KB  
Article
Advanced Consumer Behaviour Analysis: Integrating Eye Tracking, Machine Learning, and Facial Recognition
by José Augusto Rodrigues, António Vieira de Castro and Martín Llamas-Nistal
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010009 - 19 Jan 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2430
Abstract
This study presents DeepVisionAnalytics, an integrated framework that combines eye tracking, OpenCV-based computer vision (CV), and machine learning (ML) to support objective analysis of consumer behaviour in visually driven tasks. Unlike conventional self-reported surveys, which are prone to cognitive bias, recall errors, and [...] Read more.
This study presents DeepVisionAnalytics, an integrated framework that combines eye tracking, OpenCV-based computer vision (CV), and machine learning (ML) to support objective analysis of consumer behaviour in visually driven tasks. Unlike conventional self-reported surveys, which are prone to cognitive bias, recall errors, and social desirability effects, the proposed approach relies on direct behavioural measurements of visual attention. The system captures gaze distribution and fixation dynamics during interaction with products or interfaces. It uses AOI-level eye tracking metrics as the sole behavioural signal to infer candidate choice under constrained experimental conditions. In parallel, OpenCV and ML perform facial analysis to estimate demographic attributes (age, gender, and ethnicity). These attributes are collected independently and linked post hoc to gaze-derived outcomes. Demographics are not used as predictive features for choice inference. Instead, they are used as contextual metadata to support stratified, segment-level interpretation. Empirical results show that gaze-based inference closely reproduces observed choice distributions in short-horizon, visually driven tasks. Demographic estimates enable meaningful post hoc segmentation without affecting the decision mechanism. Together, these results show that multimodal integration can move beyond descriptive heatmaps. The platform produces reproducible decision-support artefacts, including AOI rankings, heatmaps, and segment-level summaries, grounded in objective behavioural data. By separating the decision signal (gaze) from contextual descriptors (demographics), this work contributes a reusable end-to-end platform for marketing and UX research. It supports choice inference under constrained conditions and segment-level interpretation without demographic priors in the decision mechanism. Full article
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18 pages, 10325 KB  
Article
Eye Movement Analysis: A Kernel Density Estimation Approach for Saccade Direction and Amplitude
by Paula Fehlinger, Bernhard Ertl and Bianca Watzka
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010010 - 19 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1308
Abstract
Eye movements are important indicators of problem-solving or solution strategies and are recorded using eye-tracking technologies. As they reveal how viewers interact with presented information during task processing, their analysis is crucial for educational research. Traditional methods for analyzing saccades, such as histograms [...] Read more.
Eye movements are important indicators of problem-solving or solution strategies and are recorded using eye-tracking technologies. As they reveal how viewers interact with presented information during task processing, their analysis is crucial for educational research. Traditional methods for analyzing saccades, such as histograms or polar diagrams, are limited in capturing patterns in direction and amplitude. To address this, we propose a kernel density estimation approach that explicitly accounts for the data structure: for the circular distribution of saccade direction, we use the von Mises kernel, and for saccade amplitude, a Gaussian kernel. This yields continuous probability distributions that not only improve accuracy of representations but also model the underlying distribution of eye movements. This method enables the identification of strategies used during task processing and reveals the connections to the underlying cognitive processes. It allows for a deeper understanding of information processing during learning. By applying our new method to an empirical dataset, we uncovered differences in solution strategies that conventional techniques could not reveal. The insights gained can contribute to the development of more effective teaching methods, better tailored to the individual needs of learners, thereby enhancing their academic success. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking and Visualization)
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19 pages, 1308 KB  
Article
Analysis of Top-Down Perceptual Modulation Considering Eye Fixations Made on a Bistable Logo
by Guillermo Rodríguez-Martínez and Juan Camilo Giraldo-Aristizábal
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010008 - 14 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1119
Abstract
Within the framework of brand communication, several companies choose to use bistable logos. These types of logos fall within the mechanisms inherent to bistable perception, where the interpretation of the two possible percepts involved may depend on the areas being observed or on [...] Read more.
Within the framework of brand communication, several companies choose to use bistable logos. These types of logos fall within the mechanisms inherent to bistable perception, where the interpretation of the two possible percepts involved may depend on the areas being observed or on prior instructions given to the observer to search for a particular shape within the ambiguous image. Perceptual factors related to the stimulus and the areas of eye fixation are called bottom-up aspects. The information exogenous to the bistable stimulus that determines perception is called top-down modulation. In order to determine whether certain bottom-up perceptual modulation areas for the Toblerone bistable logo are related to the search for each percept previously modulated by a written instruction, an experimental task was carried out with 34 participants using a Tobii T-120 eye tracker device, manufactured by Tobii in Danderyd, Sweden. Seven bottom-up modulation clusters were analyzed for ocular responses manifested in two different top-down modulation conditions. The results show that for each of the percepts, some areas correspond to the textual information offered as a top-down modulator. It is concluded that for the perception of the Toblerone® logo, some areas are related to each percept, and the unimodal top-down modulation mechanisms operate in certain areas, while others can be assumed to be parts of the logo that contribute to the recognition of the two percepts involved. Full article
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23 pages, 67974 KB  
Article
Analyzing the “Opposite” Approach in Additions to Historic Buildings Using Visual Attention Tools: Dresden Military History Museum Case
by Nuray Özkaraca Özalp, Hicran Hanım Halaç, Mehmet Fatih Özalp and Fikret Bademci
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010007 - 12 Jan 2026
Viewed by 1527
Abstract
From past to present, modern additions have continued to transform historic environments. While some argue that contemporary extensions disrupt the integrity of historic buildings, others suggest that the contrast between past and present creates a meaningful architectural dialog. This debate raises a key [...] Read more.
From past to present, modern additions have continued to transform historic environments. While some argue that contemporary extensions disrupt the integrity of historic buildings, others suggest that the contrast between past and present creates a meaningful architectural dialog. This debate raises a key question: in contrasting compositions, which architectural elements draw more visual attention, the historic or the modern? To address this, a visual attention-based analytical approach is adopted. In this study, eye-tracking-based visual attention analysis is used to examine how viewers perceive the relationship between historical and contemporary architectural elements. Instead of conventional laboratory-based eye-tracking, artificial intelligence-supported visual attention software developed from eye-tracking datasets is employed. Four tools—3M-VAS, EyeQuant, Attention Insight, and Expoze—were used to generate heat maps, gaze sequence maps, hotspots, focus maps, attention distribution diagrams, and saliency predictions. These visualizations enabled both a qualitative and quantitative comparison of viewer focus. The case study is the Military History Museum in Dresden, Germany, known for its widely debated contemporary addition representing an oppositional design approach. The results illustrate which architectural components are visually prioritized, offering insight into how contrasting architectural languages are cognitively perceived in historic settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eye Tracking and Visualization)
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30 pages, 330 KB  
Article
Spanish Readers Skip Articles Regardless of Gender and Number Agreement
by Marina Serrano-Carot and Bernhard Angele
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010006 - 9 Jan 2026
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1626
Abstract
Articles are among the most frequently encountered words during reading; however, it is not clear how deeply they are usually processed. This study examines whether native Spanish speakers use parafoveal article–noun agreement information to guide eye movements during reading. Using the gaze-contingent boundary [...] Read more.
Articles are among the most frequently encountered words during reading; however, it is not clear how deeply they are usually processed. This study examines whether native Spanish speakers use parafoveal article–noun agreement information to guide eye movements during reading. Using the gaze-contingent boundary paradigm, we manipulated the parafoveal preview of articles across two experiments. In Experiment 1, we manipulated gender agreement between the previews readers received of definite articles and the subsequent nouns (e.g., la mesa vs. el* mesa). In Experiment 2, we manipulated grammatical gender and number agreement between parafoveal article previews and the subsequent nouns jointly (e.g., los* mesa vs. una mesa). We found no evidence that parafoveal article–noun gender or number agreement affected article skipping probability, suggesting that initial parafoveal processing of articles does not extend to their grammatical properties. However, we observed increased total viewing time on the noun following mismatching previews, suggesting that, while the decision of whether to skip an article is taken largely without considering the grammatical properties of the upcoming words, readers do need more time to recover from the grammatical mismatch afterwards. We discuss the results in the context of current models of eye-movement control during reading. Full article
16 pages, 2139 KB  
Article
Visual Strategies of Avoidantly Attached Individuals: Attachment Avoidance and Gaze Behavior in Deceptive Interactions
by Petra Hypšová, Martin Seitl and Stanislav Popelka
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010005 - 7 Jan 2026
Viewed by 2473
Abstract
Gaze behavior is a critical component of social interaction, reflecting emotional recognition and social regulation. While previous research has emphasized either situational influences (e.g., deception) or stable individual differences (e.g., attachment avoidance) on gaze patterns, studies exploring how these factors interact to shape [...] Read more.
Gaze behavior is a critical component of social interaction, reflecting emotional recognition and social regulation. While previous research has emphasized either situational influences (e.g., deception) or stable individual differences (e.g., attachment avoidance) on gaze patterns, studies exploring how these factors interact to shape gaze behavior in interpersonal contexts remain scarce. In this vein, the aim of the present study was to experimentally determine whether the gaze direction of individuals differs, with respect to their avoidant orientation, under changing situational conditions, including truthful and deceptive communication towards a counterpart. Using a within-person experimental design and the eye-tracking methodology, 31 participants took part in both rehearsed and spontaneous truth-telling and lie-telling tasks. Consistent with expectations, higher attachment avoidance was associated with significantly fewer fixations on emotionally expressive facial regions (e.g., mouth, jaw), and non-significant but visually consistent increases in fixations on the upper face (e.g., eyes) and background. These findings indicate that stable dispositional tendencies, rather than situational demands such as deception, predominantly shape gaze allocation during interpersonal interactions. They further provide a foundation for future investigations into the dynamic interplay between personality and situational context in interactive communicative settings. Full article
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16 pages, 2000 KB  
Article
The Impact of Ophthalmic Lens Power and Treatments on Eye Tracking Performance
by Marta Lacort-Beltrán, Adrián Alejandre, Sara Guillén, Marina Vilella, Xian Pan, Victoria Pueyo, Marta Ortin and Eduardo Esteban-Ibañez
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010004 - 29 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1837
Abstract
Eye tracking (ET) technology is increasingly used in both research and clinical practice, but its accuracy may be compromised by the presence of ophthalmic lenses. This study systematically evaluated the influence of different optical prescriptions and lens treatments on ET performance using DIVE [...] Read more.
Eye tracking (ET) technology is increasingly used in both research and clinical practice, but its accuracy may be compromised by the presence of ophthalmic lenses. This study systematically evaluated the influence of different optical prescriptions and lens treatments on ET performance using DIVE (Device for an Integral Visual Examination). Fourteen healthy participants underwent oculomotor control tests under thirteen optical conditions: six with varying dioptric powers and six with optical filters, compared against a no-lens control. Key parameters analysed included angle error, fixation stability (bivariate contour ellipse area, BCEA), saccadic accuracy, number of data gaps, and proportion of valid frames. High-powered spherical lenses (+6.00 D and −6.00 D) significantly increased gaze angle error, and the negative lens also increased data gaps, while cylindrical lenses had a moderate effect. Among filters, the Natural IR coating caused the greatest deterioration in ET performance, reducing valid samples and increasing the number of gaps with data loss, likely due to interference with the infrared-based detection system. The lens with basic anti-reflective treatment (SV Org 1.5 AR) also showed some deterioration in interaction with the ET. Other filters showed minimal or no significant impact. These findings demonstrate that both high-powered prescriptions and certain lens treatments can compromise ET data quality, highlighting the importance of accounting for optical conditions in experimental design and clinical applications. Full article
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25 pages, 983 KB  
Article
Reading Music or Reading Notes? Rethinking Musical Stimuli in Eye-Movement Research
by Katarzyna Julia Leikvoll
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010003 - 29 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1709
Abstract
This article examines the nature of musical stimuli used in eye-movement research on music reading, with a focus on syntactic elements essential for fluent reading: melody, rhythm, and harmony. Drawing parallels between language and music as syntactic systems, the study critiques the widespread [...] Read more.
This article examines the nature of musical stimuli used in eye-movement research on music reading, with a focus on syntactic elements essential for fluent reading: melody, rhythm, and harmony. Drawing parallels between language and music as syntactic systems, the study critiques the widespread use of stimuli that lack coherent musical structure, such as random pitch sequences or rhythmically ambiguous patterns. Eight peer-reviewed studies were analyzed based on their use of stimuli specifically composed for research purposes. The findings reveal that most stimuli do not reflect authentic musical syntax, limiting the validity of conclusions about music reading processes. The article also explores how researchers interpret the concept of “complexity” in musical stimuli, noting inconsistencies and a lack of standardized criteria. Additionally, it highlights the importance of considering motor planning and instrument-specific challenges, which are often overlooked in experimental design. The study calls for more deliberate and informed stimulus design in future research, emphasizing the need for syntactically meaningful musical excerpts and standardized definitions of complexity. Such improvements are essential for advancing the understanding of syntactic processing in music reading and ensuring methodological consistency across studies. Full article
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17 pages, 5410 KB  
Article
Comparing Eye-Tracking and Verbal Reports in L2 Reading Process Research: Three Qualitative Studies
by Chengsong Yang, Guangwei Hu, Keyu Que and Na Fan
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010002 - 25 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1298
Abstract
This study compares the roles of eye-tracking and verbal reports (think-alouds and retrospective verbal reports, RVRs) in L2 reading process research through three qualitative studies. Findings indicate that eye-tracking provided precise, quantitative data on visual attention and reading patterns (e.g., fixation duration, gaze [...] Read more.
This study compares the roles of eye-tracking and verbal reports (think-alouds and retrospective verbal reports, RVRs) in L2 reading process research through three qualitative studies. Findings indicate that eye-tracking provided precise, quantitative data on visual attention and reading patterns (e.g., fixation duration, gaze plots) and choice-making during gap-filling. Based on our mapping, it was mostly effective in identifying 13 out of 47 reading processing strategies, primarily those involving skimming or scanning that had distinctive eye-movement signatures. Verbal reports, while less exact in measurement, offered direct access to cognitive processes (e.g., strategy use, reasoning) and uncovered content-specific thoughts inaccessible to eye-tracking. Both methods exhibited reactivity: eye-tracking could cause physical discomfort or altered reading behavior, whereas think-alouds could disrupt task flow or enhance reflection. This study reveals the respective strengths and limitations of eye-tracking and verbal reports in L2 reading research. It facilitates a more informed selection and application of these methodological approaches in alignment with specific research objectives, whether employed in isolation or in an integrated manner. Full article
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24 pages, 2587 KB  
Article
Discriminative Capabilities of Eye Gaze Measures for Cognitive Load Evaluation in a Driving Simulation Task
by Anastasiia Bakhchina, Karina Arutyunova, Evgenii Burashnikov, Anastasiya Filatova, Andrei Filimonov and Ivan Shishalov
J. Eye Mov. Res. 2026, 19(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/jemr19010001 - 24 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1485
Abstract
Driving is a cognitively demanding task engaging attentional effort and working memory resources, which increases cognitive load. The aim of this study was to evaluate the discriminative capabilities of an objective eye tracking method in comparison to a subjective self-report scale (the NASA–Task [...] Read more.
Driving is a cognitively demanding task engaging attentional effort and working memory resources, which increases cognitive load. The aim of this study was to evaluate the discriminative capabilities of an objective eye tracking method in comparison to a subjective self-report scale (the NASA–Task Load Index) in distinguishing cognitive load levels during driving. Participants (N = 685) performed highway and urban driving in a fixed-base driving simulator. The N-Back test was used as a secondary task to increase cognitive load. In line with previous studies, the NASA–Task Load Index was shown to be an accurate self-report tool in distinguishing conditions with higher and lower levels of cognitive load due to the additional N-Back task, with best average accuracy of 0.81 within the highway driving scenario. Eye gaze metrics worked best when differentiating between stages of highway and urban driving, with an average accuracy of 0.82. Eye gaze entropy measures were the best indicators for cognitive load dynamics, with average accuracy reaching 0.95 for gaze transition entropy in the urban vs. highway comparison. Eye gaze metrics showed significant correlations with the NASA–Task Load Index results in urban driving stages, but not in highway driving. The results demonstrate that eye gaze metrics can be used in combination with self-reports for developing algorithms of cognitive load evaluation and reliable driver state prediction in different road conditions. Full article
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