Sensors

184 pages, 1026 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Sensors in 2019

by Sensors Editorial Office

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020576 - 20 Jan 2020

Viewed by 16188

Peer review is an essential part in the publication process, ensuring that Sensors maintains high quality standards for its published papers [...] Full article

20 pages, 3137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Iterative Analog–Digital Multi-User Equalizer for Wideband Millimeter Wave Massive MIMO Systems

by Roberto Magueta, Daniel Castanheira, Pedro Pedrosa, Adão Silva, Rui Dinis and Atílio Gameiro

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 575; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020575 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3928

Abstract

Most of the previous work on hybrid transmit and receive beamforming focused on narrowband channels. Because the millimeter wave channels are expected to be wideband, it is crucial to propose efficient solutions for frequency-selective channels. In this regard, this paper proposes an iterative [...] Read more.

Most of the previous work on hybrid transmit and receive beamforming focused on narrowband channels. Because the millimeter wave channels are expected to be wideband, it is crucial to propose efficient solutions for frequency-selective channels. In this regard, this paper proposes an iterative analog–digital multi-user equalizer scheme for the uplink of wideband millimeter-wave massive multiple-input-multiple-output (MIMO) systems. By iterative equalizer we mean that both analog and digital parts are updated using as input the estimates obtained at the previous iteration. The proposed iterative analog–digital multi-user equalizer is designed by minimizing the sum of the mean square error of the data estimates over the subcarriers. We assume that the analog part is fixed for all subcarriers while the digital part is computed on a per subcarrier basis. Due to the complexity of the resulting optimization problem, a sequential approach is proposed to compute the analog phase shifters values for each radio frequency (RF) chain. We also derive an accurate, semi-analytical approach for obtaining the bit error rate (BER) of the proposed hybrid system. The proposed solution is compared with other hybrid equalizer schemes, recently designed for wideband millimeter-wave (mmWave) massive MIMO systems. The simulation results show that the performance of the developed analog–digital multi-user equalizer is close to full-digital counterpart and outperforms the previous hybrid approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Millimeter-Wave Antenna Arrays: Design, Challenges, and Applications)

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20 pages, 5448 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microseismic Event Location by Considering the Influence of the Empty Area in an Excavated Tunnel

by Pingan Peng, Yuanjian Jiang, Liguan Wang and Zhengxiang He

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 574; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020574 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3710

Abstract

The velocity model is a key factor that affects the accuracy of microseismic event location around tunnels. In this paper, we consider the effect of the empty area on the microseismic event location and present a 3D heterogeneous velocity model for excavated tunnels. [...] Read more.

The velocity model is a key factor that affects the accuracy of microseismic event location around tunnels. In this paper, we consider the effect of the empty area on the microseismic event location and present a 3D heterogeneous velocity model for excavated tunnels. The grid-based heterogeneous velocity model can describe a 3D arbitrarily complex velocity model, where the microseismic monitoring areas are divided into many blocks. The residual between the theoretical arrival time calculated by the fast marching method (FMM) and the observed arrival time is used to identify the block with the smallest residual. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) is used to improve the location accuracy in this block. Synthetic tests show that the accuracy of the microseismic event location based on the heterogeneous velocity model was higher than that based on the single velocity model, independent of whether an arrival time error was considered. We used the heterogeneous velocity model to locate 7 blasting events and 44 microseismic events with a good waveform quality in the Qinling No. 4 tunnel of the Yinhanjiwei project from 6 June 2017 to 13 June 2017 and compared the location results of the heterogeneous-velocity model with those of the single-velocity model. The results of this case study show that the events located by the heterogeneous velocity model were concentrated around the working face, which matched the actual conditions of the project, while the events located by the single-velocity model were scattered and far from the working face. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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11 pages, 3150 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Recognition of Negative Emotion Using Long Short-Term Memory with Bio-Signal Feature Compression

by JeeEun Lee and Sun K. Yoo

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 573; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020573 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4434

Abstract

Negative emotion is one reason why stress causes negative feedback. Therefore, many studies are being done to recognize negative emotions. However, emotion is difficult to classify because it is subjective and difficult to quantify. Moreover, emotion changes over time and is affected by [...] Read more.

Negative emotion is one reason why stress causes negative feedback. Therefore, many studies are being done to recognize negative emotions. However, emotion is difficult to classify because it is subjective and difficult to quantify. Moreover, emotion changes over time and is affected by mood. Therefore, we measured electrocardiogram (ECG), skin temperature (ST), and galvanic skin response (GSR) to detect objective indicators. We also compressed the features associated with emotion using a stacked auto-encoder (SAE). Finally, the compressed features and time information were used in training through long short-term memory (LSTM). As a result, the proposed LSTM used with the feature compression model showed the highest accuracy (99.4%) for recognizing negative emotions. The results of the suggested model were 11.3% higher than with a neural network (NN) and 5.6% higher than with SAE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Applications on Emotion Recognition)

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21 pages, 4224 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aging with Autism Departs Greatly from Typical Aging

by Elizabeth B. Torres, Carla Caballero and Sejal Mistry

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 572; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020572 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 9956

Abstract

Autism has been largely portrayed as a psychiatric and childhood disorder. However, autism is a lifelong neurological condition that evolves over time through highly heterogeneous trajectories. These trends have not been studied in relation to normative aging trajectories, so we know very little [...] Read more.

Autism has been largely portrayed as a psychiatric and childhood disorder. However, autism is a lifelong neurological condition that evolves over time through highly heterogeneous trajectories. These trends have not been studied in relation to normative aging trajectories, so we know very little about aging with autism. One aspect that seems to develop differently is the sense of movement, inclusive of sensory kinesthetic-reafference emerging from continuously sensed self-generated motions. These include involuntary micro-motions eluding observation, yet routinely obtainable in fMRI studies to rid images of motor artifacts. Open-access repositories offer thousands of imaging records, covering 5–65 years of age for both neurotypical and autistic individuals to ascertain the trajectories of involuntary motions. Here we introduce new computational techniques that automatically stratify different age groups in autism according to probability distance in different representational spaces. Further, we show that autistic cross-sectional population trajectories in probability space fundamentally differ from those of neurotypical controls and that after 40 years of age, there is an inflection point in autism, signaling a monotonically increasing difference away from age-matched normative involuntary motion signatures. Our work offers new age-appropriate stochastic analyses amenable to redefine basic research and provide dynamic diagnoses as the person’s nervous systems age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning for Biomedical Imaging and Sensing)

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19 pages, 1999 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Predictive Maintenance of Boiler Feed Water Pumps Using SCADA Data

by Marek Moleda, Alina Momot and Dariusz Mrozek

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020571 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 13698

Abstract

IoT enabled predictive maintenance allows companies in the energy sector to identify potential problems in the production devices far before the failure occurs. In this paper, we propose a method for early detection of faults in boiler feed pumps using existing measurements currently [...] Read more.

IoT enabled predictive maintenance allows companies in the energy sector to identify potential problems in the production devices far before the failure occurs. In this paper, we propose a method for early detection of faults in boiler feed pumps using existing measurements currently captured by control devices. In the experimental part, we work on real measurement data and events from a coal fired power plant. The main research objective is to implement a model that detects deviations from the normal operation state based on regression and to check which events or failures can be detected by it. The presented technique allows the creation of a predictive system working on the basis of the available data with a minimal requirement of expert knowledge, in particular the knowledge related to the categorization of failures and the exact time of their occurrence, which is sometimes difficult to identify. The paper shows that with modern technologies, such as the Internet of Things, big data, and cloud computing, it is possible to integrate automation systems, designed in the past only to control the production process, with IT systems that make all processes more efficient through the use of advanced analytic tools. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors and Signal Processing of Sensor Data: Recent Advances and Applications)

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22 pages, 3673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparison of Different Methods to Estimate the Effective Spatial Resolution of FO-DTS Measurements Achieved during Sandbox Experiments

by Nataline Simon, Olivier Bour, Nicolas Lavenant, Gilles Porel, Benoît Nauleau, Behzad Pouladi and Laurent Longuevergne

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020570 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5842

Abstract

For many environmental applications, the interpretation of fiber-optic Raman distributed temperature sensing (FO-DTS) measurements is strongly dependent on the spatial resolution of measurements, especially when the objective is to detect temperature variations over small scales. Here, we propose to compare three different and [...] Read more.

For many environmental applications, the interpretation of fiber-optic Raman distributed temperature sensing (FO-DTS) measurements is strongly dependent on the spatial resolution of measurements, especially when the objective is to detect temperature variations over small scales. Here, we propose to compare three different and complementary methods to estimate, in practice, the “effective” spatial resolution of DTS measurements: The classical “90% step change” method, the correlation length estimated from experimental semivariograms, and the derivative method. The three methods were applied using FO-DTS measurements achieved during sandbox experiments using two DTS units having different spatial resolutions. Results show that the value of the spatial resolution estimated using a step change depends on both the effective spatial resolution of the DTS unit and on heat conduction induced by the high thermal conductivity of the cable. The correlation length method provides an estimate much closer to the value provided by the manufacturers, representative of the effective spatial resolutions along cable sections where temperature gradients are small or negligible. Thirdly, the application of the derivative method allows for verifying the representativeness of DTS measurements all along the cable, by localizing sections where measurements are representative of the effective temperature. We finally show that DTS measurements could be validated in sandbox experiments, when using devices with finer spatial resolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Distributed Optical Fiber Sensing)

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29 pages, 3056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crowd of Oz: A Crowd-Powered Social Robotics System for Stress Management

by Tahir Abbas, Vassilis-Javed Khan, Ujwal Gadiraju, Emilia Barakova and Panos Markopoulos

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 569; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020569 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7801

Abstract

Coping with stress is crucial for a healthy lifestyle. In the past, a great deal of research has been conducted to use socially assistive robots as a therapy to alleviate stress and anxiety related problems. However, building a fully autonomous social robot which [...] Read more.

Coping with stress is crucial for a healthy lifestyle. In the past, a great deal of research has been conducted to use socially assistive robots as a therapy to alleviate stress and anxiety related problems. However, building a fully autonomous social robot which can deliver psycho-therapeutic solutions is a very challenging endeavor due to limitations in artificial intelligence (AI). To overcome AI’s limitations, researchers have previously introduced crowdsourcing-based teleoperation methods, which summon the crowd’s input to control a robot’s functions. However, in the context of robotics, such methods have only been used to support the object manipulation, navigational, and training tasks. It is not yet known how to leverage real-time crowdsourcing (RTC) to process complex therapeutic conversational tasks for social robotics. To fill this gap, we developed Crowd of Oz (CoZ), an open-source system that allows Softbank’s Pepper robot to support such conversational tasks. To demonstrate the potential implications of this crowd-powered approach, we investigated how effectively, crowd workers recruited in real-time can teleoperate the robot’s speech, in situations when the robot needs to act as a life coach. We systematically varied the number of workers who simultaneously handle the speech of the robot (N = 1, 2, 4, 8) and investigated the concomitant effects for enabling RTC for social robotics. Additionally, we present Pavilion, a novel and open-source algorithm for managing the workers’ queue so that a required number of workers are engaged or waiting. Based on our findings, we discuss salient parameters that such crowd-powered systems must adhere to, so as to enhance their performance in response latency and dialogue quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors for Affective Computing and Sentiment Analysis)

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26 pages, 7296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation on the Nonlinear Coupled Flutter Motion of a Typical Flat Closed-Box Bridge Deck

by Guangzhong Gao, Ledong Zhu, Feng Wang, Hua Bai and Jianming Hao

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 568; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020568 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3661

Abstract

The nonlinear post-flutter instabilities were experimentally investigated through two-degree-of-freedom sectional model tests on a typical flat closed-box bridge deck (width-to-depth ratio 9.14). Laser displacement sensors and piezoelectric force balances were used in the synchronous measurement of dynamic displacement and aerodynamic force. Beyond linear [...] Read more.

The nonlinear post-flutter instabilities were experimentally investigated through two-degree-of-freedom sectional model tests on a typical flat closed-box bridge deck (width-to-depth ratio 9.14). Laser displacement sensors and piezoelectric force balances were used in the synchronous measurement of dynamic displacement and aerodynamic force. Beyond linear flutter boundary, the sectional model exhibited heave-torsion coupled limit cycle oscillation (LCOs) with an unrestricted increase of stable amplitudes with reduced velocity. The post-critical LCOs vibrated in a complex mode with amplitude-dependent mode modulus and phase angle. Obvious heaving static deformation was found to be coupled with the large-amplitude post-critical LCOs, for which classical quasi-steady theory was not applicable. The aerodynamic torsional moment and lift during post-critical LCOs were measured through a novel wind-tunnel technique by 4 piezoelectric force balances. The measured force signals were found to contain significantly higher-order components. The energy evolution mechanism during post-critical LCOs was revealed via the hysteresis loops of the measured force signals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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45 pages, 1681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Analysis of Distributed Estimation for Data Fusion Using a Statistical Approach in Smart Grid Noisy Wireless Sensor Networks

by Chatura Seneviratne, Patikiri Arachchige Don Shehan Nilmantha Wijesekara and Henry Leung

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 567; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020567 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4342

Abstract

Internet of Things (IoT) can significantly enhance various aspects of today’s electric power grid infrastructures for making reliable, efficient, and safe next-generation Smart Grids (SGs). However, harsh and complex power grid infrastructures and environments reduce the accuracy of the information propagating through IoT [...] Read more.

Internet of Things (IoT) can significantly enhance various aspects of today’s electric power grid infrastructures for making reliable, efficient, and safe next-generation Smart Grids (SGs). However, harsh and complex power grid infrastructures and environments reduce the accuracy of the information propagating through IoT platforms. In particularly, information is corrupted due to the measurement errors, quantization errors, and transmission errors. This leads to major system failures and instabilities in power grids. Redundant information measurements and retransmissions are traditionally used to eliminate the errors in noisy communication networks. However, these techniques consume excessive resources such as energy and channel capacity and increase network latency. Therefore, we propose a novel statistical information fusion method not only for structural chain and tree-based sensor networks, but also for unstructured bidirectional graph noisy wireless sensor networks in SG environments. We evaluate the accuracy, energy savings, fusion complexity, and latency of the proposed method by comparing the said parameters with several distributed estimation algorithms using extensive simulations proposing it for several SG applications. Results prove that the overall performance of the proposed method outperforms other fusion techniques for all considered networks. Under Smart Grid communication environments, the proposed method guarantees for best performance in all fusion accuracy, complexity and energy consumption. Analytical upper bounds for the variance of the final aggregated value at the sink node for structured networks are also derived by considering all major errors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Information Fusion in Sensor Networks)

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20 pages, 6530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Global Motion-Aware Robust Visual Object Tracking for Electro Optical Targeting Systems

by Byeong Hak Kim, Alan Lukezic, Jong Hyuk Lee, Ho Min Jung and Min Young Kim

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 566; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020566 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5809

Abstract

Although recently developed trackers have shown excellent performance even when tracking fast moving and shape changing objects with variable scale and orientation, the trackers for the electro-optical targeting systems (EOTS) still suffer from abrupt scene changes due to frequent and fast camera motions [...] Read more.

Although recently developed trackers have shown excellent performance even when tracking fast moving and shape changing objects with variable scale and orientation, the trackers for the electro-optical targeting systems (EOTS) still suffer from abrupt scene changes due to frequent and fast camera motions by pan-tilt motor control or dynamic distortions in field environments. Conventional context aware (CA) and deep learning based trackers have been studied to tackle these problems, but they have the drawbacks of not fully overcoming the problems and dealing with their computational burden. In this paper, a global motion aware method is proposed to address the fast camera motion issue. The proposed method consists of two modules: (i) a motion detection module, which is based on the change in image entropy value, and (ii) a background tracking module, used to track a set of features in consecutive images to find correspondences between them and estimate global camera movement. A series of experiments is conducted on thermal infrared images, and the results show that the proposed method can significantly improve the robustness of all trackers with a minimal computational overhead. We show that the proposed method can be easily integrated into any visual tracking framework and can be applied to improve the performance of EOTS applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Visual Sensors for Object Tracking and Recognition)

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17 pages, 9125 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Method for the Dynamic Coefficients Identification of Journal Bearings Using Kalman Filter

by Yang Kang, Zhanqun Shi, Hao Zhang, Dong Zhen and Fengshou Gu

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020565 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4284

Abstract

The dynamic coefficients identification of journal bearings is essential for instability analysis of rotation machinery. Aiming at the measured displacement of a single location, an improvement method associated with the Kalman filter is proposed to estimate the bearing dynamic coefficients. Firstly, a finite [...] Read more.

The dynamic coefficients identification of journal bearings is essential for instability analysis of rotation machinery. Aiming at the measured displacement of a single location, an improvement method associated with the Kalman filter is proposed to estimate the bearing dynamic coefficients. Firstly, a finite element model of the flexible rotor-bearing system was established and then modified by the modal test. Secondly, the model-based identification procedure was derived, in which the displacements of the shaft at bearings locations were estimated by the Kalman filter algorithm to identify the dynamic coefficients. Finally, considering the effect of the different process noise covariance, the corresponding numerical simulations were carried out to validate the preliminary accuracy. Furthermore, experimental tests were conducted to confirm the practicality, where the real stiffness and damping were comprehensively identified under the different operating conditions. The results show that the proposed method is not only highly accurate, but also stable under different measured locations. Compared with the conventional method, this study presents a more than high practicality approach to identify dynamic coefficients, including under the resonance condition. With high efficiency, it can be extended to predict the dynamic behaviour of rotor-bearing systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 9257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hand Gesture Recognition Using an IR-UWB Radar with an Inception Module-Based Classifier

by Shahzad Ahmed and Sung Ho Cho

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020564 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 82 | Viewed by 10239

Abstract

The emerging integration of technology in daily lives has increased the need for more convenient methods for human–computer interaction (HCI). Given that the existing HCI approaches exhibit various limitations, hand gesture recognition-based HCI may serve as a more natural mode of man–machine interaction [...] Read more.

The emerging integration of technology in daily lives has increased the need for more convenient methods for human–computer interaction (HCI). Given that the existing HCI approaches exhibit various limitations, hand gesture recognition-based HCI may serve as a more natural mode of man–machine interaction in many situations. Inspired by an inception module-based deep-learning network (GoogLeNet), this paper presents a novel hand gesture recognition technique for impulse-radio ultra-wideband (IR-UWB) radars which demonstrates a higher gesture recognition accuracy. First, methodology to demonstrate radar signals as three-dimensional image patterns is presented and then, the inception module-based variant of GoogLeNet is used to analyze the pattern within the images for the recognition of different hand gestures. The proposed framework is exploited for eight different hand gestures with a promising classification accuracy of 95%. To verify the robustness of the proposed algorithm, multiple human subjects were involved in data acquisition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue IR-UWB Radar Sensors)

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20 pages, 7255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applying Fully Convolutional Architectures for Semantic Segmentation of a Single Tree Species in Urban Environment on High Resolution UAV Optical Imagery

by Daliana Lobo Torres, Raul Queiroz Feitosa, Patrick Nigri Happ, Laura Elena Cué La Rosa, José Marcato Junior, José Martins, Patrik Olã Bressan, Wesley Nunes Gonçalves and Veraldo Liesenberg

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020563 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 97 | Viewed by 8942

Abstract

This study proposes and evaluates five deep fully convolutional networks (FCNs) for the semantic segmentation of a single tree species: SegNet, U-Net, FC-DenseNet, and two DeepLabv3+ variants. The performance of the FCN designs is evaluated experimentally in terms of classification accuracy and computational [...] Read more.

This study proposes and evaluates five deep fully convolutional networks (FCNs) for the semantic segmentation of a single tree species: SegNet, U-Net, FC-DenseNet, and two DeepLabv3+ variants. The performance of the FCN designs is evaluated experimentally in terms of classification accuracy and computational load. We also verify the benefits of fully connected conditional random fields (CRFs) as a post-processing step to improve the segmentation maps. The analysis is conducted on a set of images captured by an RGB camera aboard a UAV flying over an urban area. The dataset also contains a mask that indicates the occurrence of an endangered species called Dipteryx alata Vogel, also known as cumbaru, taken as the species to be identified. The experimental analysis shows the effectiveness of each design and reports average overall accuracy ranging from 88.9% to 96.7%, an F1-score between 87.0% and 96.1%, and IoU from 77.1% to 92.5%. We also realize that CRF consistently improves the performance, but at a high computational cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue UAV Imagery for Engineering Applications Using Artificial Intelligence Techniques (UAV-AI))

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9 pages, 3684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensing of Oxygen Partial Pressure in Air with ZnO Nanoparticles

by Xin Chang, Shunpu Li and Daping Chu

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020562 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4054

Abstract

The demand for sensors in response to oxygen partial pressure in air is increasingly high in recent years and small-size sensors on a micrometer scale and even a nanometer scale are particularly desirable. In this paper, the sensing of oxygen partial pressure in [...] Read more.

The demand for sensors in response to oxygen partial pressure in air is increasingly high in recent years and small-size sensors on a micrometer scale and even a nanometer scale are particularly desirable. In this paper, the sensing of oxygen partial pressure in air was realized by a solution-processed ZnO nanoparticle (NP). Thin-film ZnO NP was prepared by spin-coating and a highly sensitive sensor was then fabricated. The oxygen sensing performance was characterized in air and compared with that in nitrogen, which showed an increase in electrical conductance by more than 100 times as a result of decreasing oxygen partial pressure from 10³ mBar to 10⁻⁵ mBar. Moreover, higher sensitivity was achieved by increasing the annealing temperature and the effect of thermal annealing was also investigated. Furthermore, ZnO NP lines with 7 μm in width were successfully patterned with low cost by a mould-guided drying technique from ZnO NP dispersion, which makes ZnO NP extremely promising for miniaturized and integrated sensing applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Sensors)

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18 pages, 6632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tightly Coupled GNSS/INS Integration with Robust Sequential Kalman Filter for Accurate Vehicular Navigation

by Yi Dong, Dingjie Wang, Liang Zhang, Qingsong Li and Jie Wu

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 561; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020561 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 53 | Viewed by 9138

Abstract

With the development of multi-constellation multi-frequency Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), more and more observations are available for tightly coupled GNSS/Inertial Navigation System (INS) integration. Concerning the accuracy, robustness, and computational burden issues in the integration, we proposed a robust and computationally efficient [...] Read more.

With the development of multi-constellation multi-frequency Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), more and more observations are available for tightly coupled GNSS/Inertial Navigation System (INS) integration. Concerning the accuracy, robustness, and computational burden issues in the integration, we proposed a robust and computationally efficient implementation. The new tight integration model uses pseudorange, Doppler and carrier phase simultaneously, to achieve the maximum possible navigation accuracy for a single receiver. The resultant high-dimensional observation vector is then processed by a sequential Kalman Filter (KF) to improve the computational efficiency in the measurement update step. Based on the innovation of the sequential KF, a robust estimation method with Gaussian test is further devised to detect and adapt the faults in individual GNSS channels. Two field vehicular tests are conducted to evaluate the performance improvements of the proposed method, compared with loose coupling and conventional tight coupling. Test results in favorable environments indicate that the proposed method can significantly improve the velocity and attitude accuracy by 69.42% and 47.16% over loose coupling and by 64.75% and 30.88% over conventional tight coupling, respectively. Moreover, the computational efficiency is also improved by about 53.09% for the proposed method, compared with batch KF processing. In GNSS challenging environments, the proposed method also shows superiority in terms of velocity and attitude accuracy, and better bridging capability during the GNSS partial or complete outages. These results demonstrate that the proposed method is able to provide a more robust and accurate solution in real-time vehicular navigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 14408 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnetic-Measuring Square in the Measurement of the Circular Curve of Rail Transport Tracks

by Arkadiusz Kampczyk

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 560; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020560 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6200

Abstract

In rail transport, measuring the actual condition of a circular curve of a railway track is a key element of track position monitoring not only during operation but also during final works. Predicting changes in its position in the horizontal plane is one [...] Read more.

In rail transport, measuring the actual condition of a circular curve of a railway track is a key element of track position monitoring not only during operation but also during final works. Predicting changes in its position in the horizontal plane is one of the most important related scientific issues. This paper presents the results of measurements performed with an innovative measuring device called the Magnetic-Measuring Square (MMS). The aim of the research was to demonstrate the acceptability of using the MMS. Horizontal versines of a rail track curve were measured as three neighboring points on a curve (using the method of lacing/stringlining, also called the three-point or the Hallade method), and the perpendicularity of rail joints and shortenings were measured. The MMS device presented in this article was used to measure versines and differences in rails lengths (rail shortenings in the curve) in the operating mode involving a laser distance meter with a laser beam (laser power P < 1 mW, laser wavelength λ = 635 nm) with a target cross, a camera, and a surveying measuring disk. The measurement results confirmed that it is possible to employ the MMS to monitor the geometry of railway track fragments such as track transition curves and railway track curves in rail transport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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18 pages, 2069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Depth Resolution of Ultrasonic Phased Array Imaging to Inspect Aerospace Composite Structures

by Reza Mohammadkhani, Luca Zanotti Fragonara, Janardhan Padiyar M., Ivan Petrunin, João Raposo, Antonios Tsourdos and Iain Gray

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020559 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 39 | Viewed by 6920

Abstract

In this paper, we present challenges and achievements in development and use of a compact ultrasonic Phased Array (PA) module with signal processing and imaging technology for autonomous non-destructive evaluation of composite aerospace structures. We analyse two different sets of ultrasonic scan data, [...] Read more.

In this paper, we present challenges and achievements in development and use of a compact ultrasonic Phased Array (PA) module with signal processing and imaging technology for autonomous non-destructive evaluation of composite aerospace structures. We analyse two different sets of ultrasonic scan data, acquired from 5 MHz and 10 MHz PA transducers. Although higher frequency transducers promise higher axial (depth) resolution in PA imaging, we face several signal processing challenges to detect defects in composite specimens at 10 MHz. One of the challenges is the presence of multiple echoes at the boundary of the composite layers called structural noise. Here, we propose a wavelet transform-based algorithm that is able to detect and characterize defects (depth, size, and shape in 3D plots). This algorithm uses a smart thresholding technique based on the extracted statistical mean and standard deviation of the structural noise. Finally, we use the proposed algorithm to detect and characterize defects in a standard calibration specimen and validate the results by comparing to the designed depth information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected papers from the 2019 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for AeroSpace)

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10 pages, 7486 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Current Fields in a Bay Using a Coast-Fitting Tomographic Inversion

by Minmo Chen, Ze-Nan Zhu, Chuanzheng Zhang, Xiao-Hua Zhu, Min Wang, Xiaopeng Fan, Ruixiang Zhao, Ju Lin and Arata Kaneko

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 558; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020558 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3014

Abstract

Coast-fitting tomographic inversion that is based on function expansion using three types of normal modes (the Dirichlet, Neumann, and open boundary modes) is proposed to reconstruct current fields from the coastal acoustic tomography (CAT) data. The superiority of the method was validated while [...] Read more.

Coast-fitting tomographic inversion that is based on function expansion using three types of normal modes (the Dirichlet, Neumann, and open boundary modes) is proposed to reconstruct current fields from the coastal acoustic tomography (CAT) data. The superiority of the method was validated while using CAT data that were obtained in 2015 in the Dalian Bay. The semidiurnal tidal and residual current fields were accurately reconstructed over the entire model domain surrounded by coasts and open boundaries. The proposed method was effective, particularly around the peripheral regions of the tomography domain and the near-coast regions outside the domain, where accurate results are not expected from the conventional inverse method based on function expansion by Fourier function series with no coast fittings. The error velocity for the semidiurnal tidal currents was 2.2 cm s⁻¹, which was calculated from the root-mean-square-difference between the CAT-observed and inverted range-averaged currents that were obtained along the nine peripheral transmission paths. The error velocity for the residual currents estimated from the 12-h mean net residual transport at the bay mouth was 0.9 cm s⁻¹. The errors were significantly smaller than the amplitude of the tidal and residual currents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Physical Sensors)

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17 pages, 4466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Retrieval and Timing Performance of Chewing-Based Eating Event Detection in Wearable Sensors

by Rui Zhang and Oliver Amft

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020557 - 20 Jan 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4730

Abstract

We present an eating detection algorithm for wearable sensors based on first detecting chewing cycles and subsequently estimating eating phases. We term the corresponding algorithm class as a bottom-up approach. We evaluated the algorithm using electromyographic (EMG) recordings from diet-monitoring eyeglasses in free-living [...] Read more.

We present an eating detection algorithm for wearable sensors based on first detecting chewing cycles and subsequently estimating eating phases. We term the corresponding algorithm class as a bottom-up approach. We evaluated the algorithm using electromyographic (EMG) recordings from diet-monitoring eyeglasses in free-living and compared the bottom-up approach against two top-down algorithms. We show that the F1 score was no longer the primary relevant evaluation metric when retrieval rates exceeded approx. 90%. Instead, detection timing errors provided more important insight into detection performance. In 122 hours of free-living EMG data from 10 participants, a total of 44 eating occasions were detected, with a maximum F1 score of 99.2%. Average detection timing errors of the bottom-up algorithm were 2.4 ± 0.4 s and 4.3 ± 0.4 s for the start and end of eating occasions, respectively. Our bottom-up algorithm has the potential to work with different wearable sensors that provide chewing cycle data. We suggest that the research community report timing errors (e.g., using the metrics described in this work). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Signal Processing in Wearable Sensors for Health Monitoring)

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17 pages, 547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

White-Hat Worm to Fight Malware and Its Evaluation by Agent-Oriented Petri Nets

by Shingo Yamaguchi

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 556; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020556 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4922

Abstract

A new kind of malware called Mirai is spreading like wildfire. Mirai is characterized by targeting Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Since IoT devices are increasing explosively, it is not realistic to manage their vulnerability by human-wave tactics. This paper proposes a new [...] Read more.

A new kind of malware called Mirai is spreading like wildfire. Mirai is characterized by targeting Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Since IoT devices are increasing explosively, it is not realistic to manage their vulnerability by human-wave tactics. This paper proposes a new approach that uses a white-hat worm to fight malware. The white-hat worm is an extension of an IoT worm called Hajime and introduces lifespan and secondary infectivity (the ability to infect a device infected by Mirai). The proposed white-hat worm was expressed as a formal model with agent-oriented Petri nets called PN $^{2}$ . The model enables us to simulate a battle between the white-hat worm and Mirai. The result of the simulation evaluation shows that (i) the lifespan successfully reduces the worm’s remaining if short; (ii) if the worm has low secondary infectivity, its effect depends on the lifespan; and (iii) if the worm has high secondary infectivity, it is effective without depending on the lifespan. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics – Taiwan (IEEE 2019 ICCE-TW))

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20 pages, 4755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishment of a New Quantitative Evaluation Model of the Targets’ Geometry Distribution for Terrestrial Laser Scanning

by Ronghua Yang, Xiaolin Meng, Zejun Xiang, Yingmin Li, Yangsheng You and Huaien Zeng

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 555; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020555 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2723

Abstract

The precision of target-based registration is related to the geometry distribution of targets, while the current method of setting the targets mainly depends on experience, and the impact is only evaluated qualitatively by the findings from empirical experiments and through simulations. In this [...] Read more.

The precision of target-based registration is related to the geometry distribution of targets, while the current method of setting the targets mainly depends on experience, and the impact is only evaluated qualitatively by the findings from empirical experiments and through simulations. In this paper, we propose a new quantitative evaluation model, which is comprised of the rotation dilution of precision (

r D O P

, assessing the impact of targets’ geometry distribution on the rotation parameters) and the translation dilution of precision (

t D O P

, assessing the impact of targets’ geometry distribution on the translation parameters). Here, the definitions and derivation of relevant formulas of the

r D O P

and

t D O P

are given, the experience conclusions are theoretically proven by the model of

r D O P

and

t D O P

, and an accurate method for determining the optimal placement location of targets and the scanner is proposed by calculating the minimum value of

r D O P

and

t D O P

. Furthermore, we can refer to the model (

r D O P

and

t D O P

) as a unified model of the geometric distribution evaluation model, which includes the

D O P

model in GPS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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16 pages, 8306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Target Deviation Measurement of Projectile Based on Shadow Imaging Method in Laser Screen Velocity Measuring System

by Wenbo Chu, Donge Zhao, Baowei Liu, Bin Zhang and Zhiguo Gui

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020554 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5271

Abstract

In the laser screen velocity measuring (LSVM) system, there is a deviation in the consistency of the optoelectronic response between the start light screen and the stop light screen. When the projectile passes through the light screen, the projectile’s over-target position, at which [...] Read more.

In the laser screen velocity measuring (LSVM) system, there is a deviation in the consistency of the optoelectronic response between the start light screen and the stop light screen. When the projectile passes through the light screen, the projectile’s over-target position, at which the timing pulse of the LSVM system is triggered, deviates from the actual position of the light screen (i.e., the target deviation). Therefore, it brings errors to the measurement of the projectile’s velocity, which has become a bottleneck, affecting the construction of a higher precision optoelectronic velocity measuring system. To solve this problem, this paper proposes a method based on high-speed shadow imaging to measure the projectile’s target deviation, ΔS, when the LSVM system triggers the timing pulse. The infrared pulse laser is collimated by the combination of the aspherical lens to form a parallel laser source that is used as the light source of the system. When the projectile passes through the light screen, the projectile’s over-target signal is processed by the specially designed trigger circuit. It uses the rising and falling edges of this signal to trigger the camera and pulsed laser source, respectively, to ensure that the projectile’s over-target image is adequately exposed. By capturing the images of the light screen of the LSVM system and the over-target projectile separately, this method of image edge detection was used to calculate the target deviation, and this value was used to correct the target distance of the LSVM to improve the accuracy of the measurement of the projectile’s velocity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue CMOS Image Sensors and Applications)

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16 pages, 3008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of Replacing the Range Doppler Equation of Spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar Considering Atmospheric Propagation Delay with a Rational Polynomial Coefficient Model

by Shasha Hou, Yuancheng Huang, Guo Zhang, Ruishan Zhao and Peng Jia

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020553 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3252

Abstract

Usually, the rational polynomial coefficient (RPC) model of spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is fitted by the original range Doppler (RD) model. However, the radar signal is affected by two-way atmospheric delay, which causes measurement error in the slant range term of the [...] Read more.

Usually, the rational polynomial coefficient (RPC) model of spaceborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is fitted by the original range Doppler (RD) model. However, the radar signal is affected by two-way atmospheric delay, which causes measurement error in the slant range term of the RD model. In this paper, two atmospheric delay correction methods are proposed for use in terrain-independent RPC fitting: single-scene SAR imaging with a unique atmospheric delay correction parameter (plan 1) and single-scene SAR imaging with spatially varying atmospheric delay correction parameters (plan 2). The feasibility of the two methods was verified by conducting fitting experiments and geometric positioning accuracy verification of the RPC model. The experiments for the GF-3 satellite were performed by using global meteorological data, a global digital elevation model, and ground control data from several regions in China. The experimental results show that it is feasible to use plan 1 or plan 2 to correct the atmospheric delay error, no matter whether in plain, mountainous, or plateau areas. Moreover, the geometric positioning accuracy of the RPC model after correcting the atmospheric delay was improved to better than 3 m. This is of great significance for the efficient and high-precision geometric processing of spaceborne SAR images. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensors)

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13 pages, 3421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Positioning Accuracy via Map Matching Algorithm for Visual–Inertial Odometer

by Juan Meng, Mingrong Ren, Pu Wang, Jitong Zhang and Yuman Mou

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020552 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4060

Abstract

A visual–inertial odometer is used to fuse the image information obtained by a vision sensor with the data measured by an inertial sensor and recover the motion track online in a global frame. However, in an indoor environment, geometric transformation, sparse features, illumination [...] Read more.

A visual–inertial odometer is used to fuse the image information obtained by a vision sensor with the data measured by an inertial sensor and recover the motion track online in a global frame. However, in an indoor environment, geometric transformation, sparse features, illumination changes, blurring, and noise will occur, which will either cause a reduction in or failure of the positioning accuracy. To solve this problem, a map matching algorithm based on an indoor plane structure map is proposed to improve the positioning accuracy of the system; this algorithm was implemented using a conditional random field model. The output of the attitude information from the visual–inertial odometer was used as the input of the conditional random field model. The feature function between the attitude information and the expected value was established, and the maximum probabilistic value of the attitude was estimated. Finally, the closed-loop feedback correction of the visual–inertial system was carried out with the probabilistic attitude value. A number of experiments were designed to verify the feasibility and reliability of the positioning method proposed in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Approaches for Indoor Localization and Navigation)

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23 pages, 20349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multibaseline Interferometric Phase Denoising Based on Kurtosis in the NSST Domain

by Yanfang Liu, Shiqiang Li and Heng Zhang

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020551 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3213

Abstract

Interferometric phase filtering is a crucial step in multibaseline interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). Current multibaseline interferometric phase filtering methods mostly follow methods of single-baseline InSAR and do not bring its data superiority into full play. The joint filtering of multibaseline InSAR based [...] Read more.

Interferometric phase filtering is a crucial step in multibaseline interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). Current multibaseline interferometric phase filtering methods mostly follow methods of single-baseline InSAR and do not bring its data superiority into full play. The joint filtering of multibaseline InSAR based on statistics is proposed in this paper. We study and analyze the fourth-order statistical quantity of interferometric phase: kurtosis. An empirical assumption that the kurtosis of interferograms with different baselines keeps constant is proposed and is named as the baseline-invariant property of kurtosis in this paper. Some numerical experiments and rational analyses confirm its validity and universality. The noise level estimation of nature images is extended to multibaseline InSAR by dint of the baseline-invariant property of kurtosis. A filtering method based on the non-subsampled shearlet transform (NSST) and Wiener filter with estimated noise variance is proposed then. Firstly, multi-scaled and multi-directional coefficients of interferograms are obtained by NSST. Secondly, the noise variance is represented as the solution of a constrained non-convex optimization problem. A pre-thresholded Wiener filtering with estimated noise variance is employed for shrinking or zeroing NSST coefficients. Finally, the inverse NSST is utilized to obtain the filtered interferograms. Experiments on simulated and real data show that the proposed method has excellent comprehensive performance and is superior to conventional single-baseline filtering methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue InSAR Signal and Data Processing)

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14 pages, 7409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonuniformly-Rotating Ship Refocusing in SAR Imagery Based on the Bilinear Extended Fractional Fourier Transform

by Zhenru Pan, Huaitao Fan and Zhimin Zhang

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 550; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020550 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3071

Abstract

Nonuniformly-rotating ship refocusing is very significant in the marine surveillance of satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The majority of ship imaging algorithms is based on the inverse SAR (ISAR) technique. On the basis of the ISAR technique, several parameter estimation algorithms were proposed [...] Read more.

Nonuniformly-rotating ship refocusing is very significant in the marine surveillance of satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The majority of ship imaging algorithms is based on the inverse SAR (ISAR) technique. On the basis of the ISAR technique, several parameter estimation algorithms were proposed for nonuniformly rotating ships. But these algorithms still have problems on cross-terms and noise suppression. In this paper, a refocusing algorithm for nonuniformly rotating ships based on the bilinear extended fractional Fourier transform (BEFRFT) is proposed. The ship signal in a range bin can be modeled as a multicomponent cubic phase signal (CPS) after motion compensation. BEFRFT is a bilinear extension of fractional Fourier transform (FRFT), which can estimate the chirp rates and quadratic chirp rates of CPSs. Furthermore, BEFRFT has excellent performances on cross-terms and noise suppression. The results of simulated data and Gaofen-3 data verify the effectiveness of BEFRFT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Marine Applications of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR))

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16 pages, 2627 KiB

Open AccessReview

Characterizing Behavioral Activity Rhythms in Older Adults Using Actigraphy

by Ariel B. Neikrug, Ivy Y. Chen, Jake R. Palmer, Susan M. McCurry, Michael Von Korff, Michael Perlis and Michael V. Vitiello

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020549 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6574

Abstract

Wrist actigraphy has been used to assess sleep in older adult populations for nearly half a century. Over the years, the continuous raw activity data derived from actigraphy has been used for the characterization of factors beyond sleep/wake such as physical activity patterns [...] Read more.

Wrist actigraphy has been used to assess sleep in older adult populations for nearly half a century. Over the years, the continuous raw activity data derived from actigraphy has been used for the characterization of factors beyond sleep/wake such as physical activity patterns and circadian rhythms. Behavioral activity rhythms (BAR) are useful to describe individual daily behavioral patterns beyond sleep and wake, which represent important and meaningful clinical outcomes. This paper reviews common rhythmometric approaches and summarizes the available data from the use of these different approaches in older adult populations. We further consider a new approach developed in our laboratory designed to provide graphical characterization of BAR for the observed behavioral phenomenon of activity patterns across time. We illustrate the application of this new approach using actigraphy data collected from a well-characterized sample of older adults (age 60+) with osteoarthritis (OA) pain and insomnia. Generalized additive models (GAM) were implemented to fit smoothed nonlinear curves to log-transformed aggregated actigraphy-derived activity measurements. This approach demonstrated an overall strong model fit (R² = 0.82, SD = 0.09) and was able to provide meaningful outcome measures allowing for graphical and parameterized characterization of the observed activity patterns within this sample. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable Motion Sensors Applied in Older Adults)

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21 pages, 2396 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RDSP: Rapidly Deployable Wireless Ad Hoc System for Post-Disaster Management

by Ajmal Khan, Adnan Munir, Zeeshan Kaleem, Farman Ullah, Muhammad Bilal, Lewis Nkenyereye, Shahen Shah, Long D. Nguyen, S. M. Riazul Islam and Kyung-Sup Kwak

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020548 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 6941

Abstract

In post-disaster scenarios, such as after floods, earthquakes, and in war zones, the cellular communication infrastructure may be destroyed or seriously disrupted. In such emergency scenarios, it becomes very important for first aid responders to communicate with other rescue teams in order to [...] Read more.

In post-disaster scenarios, such as after floods, earthquakes, and in war zones, the cellular communication infrastructure may be destroyed or seriously disrupted. In such emergency scenarios, it becomes very important for first aid responders to communicate with other rescue teams in order to provide feedback to both the central office and the disaster survivors. To address this issue, rapidly deployable systems are required to re-establish connectivity and assist users and first responders in the region of incident. In this work, we describe the design, implementation, and evaluation of a rapidly deployable system for first response applications in post-disaster situations, named RDSP. The proposed system helps early rescue responders and victims by sharing their location information to remotely located servers by utilizing a novel routing scheme. This novel routing scheme consists of the Dynamic ID Assignment (DIA) algorithm and the Minimum Maximum Neighbor (MMN) algorithm. The DIA algorithm is used by relay devices to dynamically select their IDs on the basis of all the available IDs of networks. Whereas, the MMN algorithm is used by the client and relay devices to dynamically select their next neighbor relays for the transmission of messages. The RDSP contains three devices; the client device sends the victim’s location information to the server, the relay device relays information between client and server device, the server device receives messages from the client device to alert the rescue team. We deployed and evaluated our system in the outdoor environment of the university campus. The experimental results show that the RDSP system reduces the message delivery delay and improves the message delivery ratio with lower communication overhead. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vertical IoT Solutions and Their Applications in Smart Cities, Smart Agriculture, Smart Environment and Disaster Management)

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25 pages, 6293 KiB

Open AccessReview

Benchmarking Deep Trackers on Aerial Videos

by Abu Md Niamul Taufique, Breton Minnehan and Andreas Savakis

Sensors 2020, 20(2), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20020547 - 19 Jan 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6596

Abstract

In recent years, deep learning-based visual object trackers have achieved state-of-the-art performance on several visual object tracking benchmarks. However, most tracking benchmarks are focused on ground level videos, whereas aerial tracking presents a new set of challenges. In this paper, we compare ten [...] Read more.

In recent years, deep learning-based visual object trackers have achieved state-of-the-art performance on several visual object tracking benchmarks. However, most tracking benchmarks are focused on ground level videos, whereas aerial tracking presents a new set of challenges. In this paper, we compare ten trackers based on deep learning techniques on four aerial datasets. We choose top performing trackers utilizing different approaches, specifically tracking by detection, discriminative correlation filters, Siamese networks and reinforcement learning. In our experiments, we use a subset of OTB2015 dataset with aerial style videos; the UAV123 dataset without synthetic sequences; the UAV20L dataset, which contains 20 long sequences; and DTB70 dataset as our benchmark datasets. We compare the advantages and disadvantages of different trackers in different tracking situations encountered in aerial data. Our findings indicate that the trackers perform significantly worse in aerial datasets compared to standard ground level videos. We attribute this effect to smaller target size, camera motion, significant camera rotation with respect to the target, out of view movement, and clutter in the form of occlusions or similar looking distractors near tracked object. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aerial Vision and Sensors)

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