Search Results (151)

Heat waves have emerged as an escalating climate threat, triggering cascading disruptions across food, energy, and water systems, thereby undermining resilience and sustainability. However, reviews addressing heat wave impacts on the food–energy–water (FEW) nexus remain scarce, resulting in a fragmented understanding of cross-system interactions and limiting the ability to assess cascading risks under extreme heat. This critical issue is examined through bibliometric analysis, scoping review, and policy analysis. A total of 103 publications from 2015 to 2024 were retrieved from Web of Science and Scopus, and 63 policy documents from the United States, the European Union, Japan, China, and India were collected for policy analysis. Bibliometric analysis was conducted to identify the most influential articles, journals, countries, and research themes in this field. The scoping review indicates that agricultural losses are most frequently reported (32), followed by multiple impacts (19) and cross-sectoral disruptions (18). The use of spatial datasets and high-frequency temporal data remains limited, and community-scale studies and cross-regional comparisons are uncommon. Mechanism synthesis reveals key pathways, including direct system-specific stress on food production, water availability, and energy supply; indirect pressures arising from rising demand and constrained supply across interconnected systems; cascading disruptions mediated by infrastructure and system dependencies; and maladaptation risks associated with uncoordinated sectoral responses. Policy analysis reveals that most countries adopt sector-based adaptation approaches with limited across-system integration, and insufficient data and monitoring infrastructures. Overall, this study proposes an integrated analytical framework for understanding heat wave impacts on the FEW nexus, identifies critical research and governance gaps, and provides conceptual and practical guidance for advancing future research and strengthening coordinated adaptation across food, energy, and water sectors. Full article

The Urmia Lake Basin (ULB) in northwest Iran faces critical water management challenges significantly impacting agricultural sustainability and regional water–food security. This study presents a novel framework employing multi-objective linear programming to optimize crop selection and resource allocation strategies, addressing critical trade-offs inherent within the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus. Central to this framework is the Water–Energy–Food Nexus Index (WEFNI), which integrates seven pivotal productivity indicators: water consumption indicator (WCI), energy consumption (EC), water mass productivity (WMP), energy mass productivity (EMP), economic water productivity (EWP), and economic energy productivity (EPE). The analysis leverages 22 years of agricultural data (1995–2016) for the primary crops (wheat, barley, sugar beet, alfalfa, corn, and fruits) cultivated within the basin. Three distinct optimization scenarios are assessed: maximizing combined WEF productivity and economic returns (Sc₁); maximizing WEF productivity with minimized water consumption (Sc₂); maximizing economic returns under stringent water use limitations (Sc₃). Results consistently identify corn as the superior crop in terms of water–energy efficiency, whereas sugar beet demonstrated the lowest overall performance. This robust optimization approach elucidates critical trade-offs, providing actionable insights for policymakers managing similar water-stressed regions, although specific regional calibrations are necessary. Full article

This study presents a geospatial assessment and modeling of the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus to enrich the sustainable paddy cultivation of the North Central Province (NCP) of Sri Lanka in the Dry Zone. Increasing climatic variability and limited resources have raised concerns about the need for efficient resource management to restore food security globally. The study analyzed the three components of the WEF nexus for their synergies and trade-offs using GIS and remote sensing applications. The food productivity potential was derived using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Soil Organic Carbon (SOC), soil type, and land use, whereas water availability was assessed using the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), Soil Moisture Index (SMI), and rainfall data. Energy potential was mapped using WorldClim 2.1 datasets on solar radiation and wind speed and the proximity to the national grid. Scenario modeling was conducted through raster overlay analysis to identify zones of WEF constraints and synergies such as low food–low water areas and high energy–low productivity areas. To ensure the accuracy of the created model, Pearson correlation analysis was used to internally validate between hotspot layers (representing extracted data) and scenario layers (representing modeled outputs). The results revealed a strong positive correlation (r = 0.737), a moderate positive correlation for energy (r = 0.582), and a positive correlation for food (r = 0.273). Those values were statistically significant at p > 0.001. These results confirm the internal validity and accuracy of the model. This study further calculated the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from paddy cultivation in NCP as 1,070,800 tCO_2eq yr⁻¹, which results in an emission intensity of 5.35 tCO_2eq ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, with CH₄ contributing around 89% and N₂O 11%. This highlights the importance of sustainable cultivation in mitigating agricultural emissions that contribute to climate change. Overall, this study demonstrates a robust framework for identifying areas of resource stress or potential synergy under the WEF nexus for policy implementation, to promote climate resilience and sustainable paddy cultivation, to enhance the food security of the country. This model can be adapted to implement similar research work in the future as well. Full article

In the context of global climate change and intensified water resource constraints, studying the evolution of the urban–agricultural–ecological spatial structure and the water–heat–vegetation responses driven by large-scale irrigation and drainage projects in arid and semi-arid regions is of great significance. Based on multitemporal remote sensing data from 1985 to 2015, this study takes the Inner Mongolia Hetao Plain as the research area, constructs a “multifunctionality–dynamic evolution” dual-principle classification system for urban–agricultural–ecological space, and adopts the technical process of “separate interpretation of each single land type using the maximum likelihood algorithm followed by merging with conflict pixel resolution” to improve the classification accuracy to 90.82%. Through a land use transfer matrix, a standard deviation ellipse model, surface temperature (LST) inversion, and vegetation fractional coverage (VFC) analysis, this study systematically reveals the spatiotemporal differentiation patterns of spatial structure evolution and surface parameter responses throughout the project’s life cycle. The results show the following: (1) The spatial structure follows the path of “short-term intense disturbance–long-term stable optimization”, with agricultural space stability increasing by 4.8%, the ecological core area retention rate exceeding 90%, and urban space expanding with a shift from external encroachment to internal filling, realizing “stable grain yield with unchanged cultivated land area and improved ecological quality with controlled green space loss”. (2) The overall VFC shows a trend of “central area stable increase (annual growth rate 0.8%), eastern area fluctuating recovery (cyclic amplitude ±12%), and western area local improvement (key patches increased by 18%)”. (3) The LST-VFC relationship presents spatiotemporal misalignment, with a 0.8–1.2 °C anomalous cooling in the central region during the construction period (despite a 15% VFC decrease), driven by irrigation water thermal inertia, and a disrupted linear correlation after completion due to crop phenology changes and plastic film mulching. (4) Irrigation and drainage projects optimize water resource allocation, constructing a hub regulation model integrated with the Water–Energy–Food (WEF) Nexus, providing a replicable paradigm for ecological effect assessment of major water conservancy projects in arid regions. Full article

Bangladesh is at the forefront of climate change impacts because of its geographical location, high population density, and constrained socio-economic infrastructure. Our objective is to explore the impacts of climate change on human security components and conflict constellation, and identify adaptation actors through the lens of experts in Bangladesh. We conducted 12 semi-structured qualitative interviews with lead experts using the Problem-centred Interview (PCI) methodology and inductively applied content analysis to analyse the data, complemented with descriptive statistics. Experts see a shift in baseline risk due to the increase in frequency and severity of natural hazards. It exacerbates existing vulnerabilities by declining agricultural productivity, undermining water security and increasing migration. Food, economic, and water security are predominantly impacted, where women and the poor suffer disproportionately. Impacts on urban areas, energy and community security are under-researched. Experts agreed that climate change is a “threat multiplier” and could aggravate political insecurity, leading to conflicts. Individuals and households are primary adaptation actors, followed by governmental and non-governmental organisations. This research contributes to the broader understanding of the complex nexus of climate change impacts, human security, and conflict constellation, complements climate models and provides policy-relevant insights for inclusive, long-term adaptation grounded in local realities in Bangladesh. Full article

Agricultural water resources face growing pressure from rising food demand and environmental changes. In large agricultural irrigation areas, water and land use is closely linked to energy consumption, carbon emissions, and food production. Therefore, regulating the water–land–energy–food–carbon nexus under multiple external changes is essential for achieving sustainable agriculture. This study aims to optimize water and land allocation in large agricultural irrigation areas to enhance yields and reduce carbon emissions under different external environments and production conditions. A spatial–temporal synergistic optimization and regulation model for water and land resources in large agricultural irrigation zones is developed. Based on 191 representative irrigation districts in Heilongjiang Province, multiple scenarios are constructed, including water-saving irrigation, climate change and low-carbon irrigation energy transitions. Optimal solutions are identified using the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm III. The results indicate that, after optimization in the current scenario, crop production increased by 2.13%, carbon emissions decreased by 1.23%, and irrigation energy productivity rose by 9.33%. Concurrently, water-saving irrigation should be prioritized in western regions. This study provides an efficient water management pathway for major food production regions. Full article

The authors frame greenhouse operation as a Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) challenge involving multiple interdependent targets: air temperature and humidity, CO₂ enrichment, photoperiod-constrained lighting, and irrigation under dynamic and limited energy availability. We propose a knowledge-driven, multi-objective Model Predictive Controller whose cost function integrates expert priorities elicited via an online Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) survey; these AHP-derived weights parameterize the controller’s objectives and are solved over two 72 h seasonal episodes, so the MPC can anticipate renewable availability and coordinate HVAC, (de)humidification, CO₂ dosing, LED lighting, and irrigation alongside dispatch from photovoltaic and wind sources, battery storage, and the grid. By embedding the physical interdependence of climate variables directly into the decision layer, the controller schedules energy-intensive actions around renewable peaks and avoids counterproductive actuator conflicts. Seasonal case studies (summer/high solar and winter/low solar) demonstrate robust performance: temperature tracking errors of SMAPE 2.25%/3.05% and CO₂ SMAPE 3.72–3.92%; humidity control with SMAPE 7.04–8.56%; lighting and irrigation following setpoints with low NRMSE (0.08–0.14). Summer energy was 59% renewable; winter was only 13%, increasing grid reliance to 77.5% (peaks: 4.57 kW/6.92 kW for 197.7/181.5 kWh). Under water or energy scarcity, the controller degrades gracefully, protecting high-priority agronomic variables while allowing bounded relaxation on lower-priority targets. This expert-informed, predictive, and resource-aware orchestration offers a scalable route to precision greenhouse control within the food–water–energy nexus. Full article

Agrivoltaic (AV) systems are increasingly recognized as a strategy to enhance sustainable land management, yet their application in post-conflict settings remains underexplored. This study addresses this gap by evaluating AV deployment in two Colombian municipalities located in PDET/ZOMAC regions, using an integrated framework that expands the conventional Water–Energy–Food (WEF) nexus into the Water–Energy–Food–Soil–Climate–Communities (WEFSCC) nexus. The research combined GIS-based site characterization, crop yield and water balance modeling (contrasting traditional irrigation with hydroponics), and photovoltaic performance simulations for 30 kW systems, under conservative and moderate scenarios. Economic analyses included Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and Free Cash Flow (FCL), with sensitivity tests for crop prices, yields, tariffs, and costs. Results indicate that AV can reduce crop irrigation demand by up to 40%, while generating 17 MWh/month of electricity per site. Cabrera exhibited higher profitability than Pisba, explained by yield differences and site-specific energy outputs. Comparative analysis confirmed consistency with experiences in Africa and Europe, while emphasizing local socio-environmental benefits. Conclusions highlight AV systems as resilient tools for sustainable land management in Colombia’s post-conflict regions, with actionable implications for land-use regulation, fiscal incentives, and international cooperation programs targeting rural development. Full article

The Warta River basin, Poland’s third-largest basin, is highly vulnerable to drought, which occurs in both cold and warm seasons. This study examined meteorological and hydrological droughts using daily temperature and precipitation data from 211 meteorological stations and discharge data from 15 hydrological gauges for 2000–2020. Four indicators were applied: SPI and SPEI for meteorological drought, and SRI and ThLM for hydrological drought. The analysis revealed prolonged droughts and a systematic decline in SRI values, especially from March to September. The longest event, a shallow drought, lasted 555 days between 2019 and 2020 at the Sławsk gauge. The period from 2018 to 2020 was particularly severe, with drought intensity increasing and affecting 70–80% of river flows, while events persisted longer than usual. Water withdrawals, especially for municipal use, further reduced river levels. The section between Uniejów and Oborniki, located downstream of one of Poland’s largest reservoirs, proved most vulnerable to hydrological drought. Overall, results indicate a deteriorating water situation in the Warta basin, with the most significant deficits in spring and summer. These trends pose serious challenges for water management and water supply security. An improved understanding of meteorological and hydrological droughts and their impact is essential for managing the water–food–environment–energy nexus, including restrictions on water use for domestic, economic, and agricultural purposes, as well as the functioning of aquatic ecosystems. Full article

The Yellow River Basin (YRB) is a core region for agricultural production in China; however, its agricultural energy consumption exhibits significant spatial–temporal differences, and it is confronted with the practical demand for the coordination of low-carbon transition and food security. Investigating the driving factors of agricultural energy consumption in the YRB is crucial for optimizing its agricultural energy structure, advancing low-carbon agricultural development, and offering targeted support for regional agricultural sustainability. Based on the data of YRB from 2000 to 2021, this paper employs the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method to decompose the driving factors of agricultural energy consumption in the basin by examining the interrelationships among five key factors: water, energy, food, land, and population. The results showed the following: (1) Per capita food production efficiency effect is the main factor driving the increase in agricultural energy consumption, followed by the water consumption output efficiency effect, the effective irrigation rate effect, the actual irrigation ratio effect, and the population scale effect. (2) The agricultural employment structure effect, the energy consumption output efficiency effect, the intensity of agricultural acreage effect, and the irrigation quota effect have reduced agricultural energy consumption. (3) Specifically, in Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Henan, the largest incremental effect is the per capita food production efficiency effect. However, the primary driver in the remaining six provinces is the water consumption output efficiency effect. Regarding the reduction effect, the largest driver in Gansu, Shanxi and Shandong is the energy consumption output efficiency effect. Further, this paper analyzes the drivers of spatial differences in agricultural energy consumption in nine places. The research results can provide theoretical support and practical references for formulating targeted regional policies for the low-carbon transition of agricultural energy in the YRB. Full article

As a major energy producer and consumer, China has witnessed rapid growth in carbon emissions, which are closely linked to changes in regional climate and the environment. Water, energy, and food (W-E-F) are the three most critical components of human production and daily life, and achieving the coordinated development of these three resources and connecting them with climate change through the carbon emissions generated during their utilization processes has become a key issue for realizing regional ecological sustainable development. This study constructs a dynamic two-stage network slack-based measure-data envelopment analysis (SBM-DEA) model, which integrates the water–energy–food (W-E-F) system with the climate change process to evaluate China’s comprehensive ecological efficiency from 2011 to 2022, and adopts the Dagum Gini coefficient decomposition, kernel density estimation, hierarchical clustering, and geographical detector model to analyze provincial panel data, thereby assessing efficiency patterns, regional differences, and driving mechanisms. The novelty and contributions of this study can be summarized in three aspects. First, it establishes a unified framework that incorporates the W-E-F nexus and climate change into a dynamic network SBM-DEA model, enabling a more systematic assessment of ecological efficiency. Second, it uncovers that interregional overlap effects and policy-driven factors are the dominant sources of spatial and temporal disparities in ecological efficiency. Third, it further quantifies the interactive effects among key driving factors using Geodetector, thus offering practical insights for regional coordination and policy design. The results show that China’s national ecological efficiency is at a medium level. Southern China has consistently maintained a leading position, while provinces in northwest and southwest China have remained relatively backward; the efficiency of the water–energy–food integration stage is relatively high, whereas the efficiency of the climate change stage is medium and exhibits significant temporal fluctuations. Interregional differences are the main source of efficiency gaps; ecological quality, environmental protection efforts, and population size are identified as the primary driving factors, and their interaction effects have intensified spatial heterogeneity. In addition, sub-indicator analysis reveals that the efficiency related to total wastewater, air pollutant emissions, and agricultural pollution shows good synergy, while the efficiency associated with sudden environmental change events is highly volatile and has weak correlations with other undesirable outputs. These findings deepen the understanding of the water–energy–food-climate system and provide policy implications for strengthening ecological governance and regional coordination. Full article

Swimming pools, symbols of luxury in tourism-driven Greece, raise concerns about water consumption in water-scarce regions. This study assesses their hydrological impact in two regions of Southern Greece, West Mani (Peloponnese) and Naxos Island (Cyclades), within the water–energy–food nexus framework, evaluating the resulting trade-offs. Using satellite imagery, we identified 354 pools in West Mani (11,738 m²) and 556 in Naxos (26,825 m²). Two operational scenarios were evaluated: complete seasonal emptying and refilling (Scenario 1) and one-third annual water renewal (Scenario 2). Annual water use ranged from 39,000 to 51,000 m³ in West Mani and 98,000 to 124,000 m³ in Naxos—equivalent to the needs of 625–2769 and 1549–6790 people in West Mani and Naxos, respectively. In Naxos, this volume could alternatively irrigate 27–40 hectares of potatoes, producing food for 700–1500 people. Energy requirements, particularly where desalination is used, further increase the burden, with Naxos pools requiring 384–846 MWh annually. Although swimming pools are highly visible water consumers, their overall contribution to water scarcity is modest compared to household and agricultural uses. Their visibility, however, amplifies public concern. Rainwater harvesting, requiring collection areas 10–24 times larger than pool surface areas, especially in residential and hotel settings, could make pools largely self-sufficient. Integrating such measures into water management and tourism policy can help balance luxury amenities with resource conservation in water-scarce Mediterranean regions. Full article

Population growth drives increasing energy demands, agricultural production, and organic waste generation. The organic waste contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and increasing landfill burdens, highlighting the need for novel closed-loop technologies that integrate water, energy, and food resources. Within the context of the Water–energy–food Nexus (WEF), wastewater can be recycled for food production and food waste can be converted into clean energy, both contributing to environmental impact reduction and resource sustainability. A novel household-scale, closed-loop WEF system was designed, installed and operated to manage organic waste while retrieving water for irrigation, nutrients for plant growth, and biogas for energy generation. The system included a biodigester for energy production, a sand filter system to regulate nutrient levels in the effluent, and a hydroponic setup for growing food crops using the nutrient-rich effluent. These components are operated with a daily batch feeder coupled with automated sensors to monitor effluent flow from the biodigester, sand filter system, and the feeder to the hydroponic system. This novel system was operated continuously for two months using typical household waste composition. Controlled experimental tests were conducted weekly to measure the nutrient content of the effluent at four locations and to analyze the composition of biogas. Gas chromatography was used to analyze biogas composition, while test strips and In-Situ Aqua Troll Multi-Parameter Water Quality Sonde were employed for water quality measurements during the experimental study. Experimental results showed that the system consistently produced biogas with 76.7% (±5.2%) methane, while effluent analysis confirmed its potential as a nutrient source with average concentrations of phosphate (20 mg/L), nitrate (26 mg/L), and nitrite (5 mg/L). These nutrient values indicate suitability for hydroponic crop growth and reduced reliance on synthetic fertilizers. This novel system represents a significant step toward integrating waste management, energy production, and food cultivation at the source, in this case, the household. Full article

The valorization of local plant cover, particularly through the integration of indigenous knowledge, is central to Tunisia’s economic development strategies. These approaches focus on diversifying agriculture by enhancing local natural and cultural heritage to strengthen community resilience amid environmental and socio-economic changes and to address rural exodus. This study examines the feasibility of AMP-based micro-projects in Matmata (southeastern Tunisia) by applying the Water–Energy–Food–Ecosystem (WEFE) nexus and participatory methods involving local stakeholders. Field surveys, literature reviews, and statistical analyses reveal growing youth interest in AMP ventures, driven by rising pharmaceutical and cosmetic demand. Economic viability is confirmed by internal rate of return (IRR) values of 32%, 28%, and 43%, all well above the 10% profitability threshold. Profitability index (PI) values indicate efficient investments, yielding returns of 2.64, 2.13, and 5.31 dinars per dinar invested. The initiatives also deliver socio-cultural and environmental benefits through WEFE-based resource management. Beyond profitability, the study identifies gaps and opportunities to enhance AMP biodiversity, resource management, and sustainable diversification in southern Tunisia. Further efforts are required to increase market value and ensure equitable benefit distribution. Government policies should focus on raising WEFE awareness, building capacity, and investing in climate-smart agriculture, especially in vulnerable, migration-prone regions, supported by reforms in financing, taxation, and spatial planning. Full article

Nowadays, sustainable agriculture is emerging as a critical framework within which food production, environmental protection and resilience to climate change must go hand in hand. At the core of this framework are the linkages between soil, water, crops, and energy (SWCE). As pressures from climate change, population growth and agricultural land degradation intensify, environmental management strategies are called upon to become more interdisciplinary, targeted and cost-effective. This review article synthesizes recent scientific findings shaping the contemporary understanding of hydro-environmental agriculture and critically examines the conceptual foundation of the SWCE nexus under climate complexity. In addition to reviewing methodological approaches, it highlights both successful global practice examples—such as integrated solar-powered irrigation and conservation-oriented soil–water management systems—and failed or problematic implementations where institutional fragmentation, unsustainable groundwater use, or energy trade-offs undermined outcomes. By analyzing these contrasting experiences, the article identifies key limiting factors and enabling conditions for scaling up nexus-based solutions. Finally, it provides recommendations for future research, integration, and policy-making, emphasizing the importance of adaptive governance, participatory approaches, and cross-sectoral collaboration to enhance the sustainability and resilience of agriculture. Full article