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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Resources Management, Policy and Governance".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 January 2026) | Viewed by 25974

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Dr. Yang Kong

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Guest Editor

College of Economics and Management, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, China
Interests: water pollution assessment; water resource management; water determining production; water-energy-food nexus; social hydrology
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Dr. Dagmawi Mulugeta Degefu

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil & Mineral Engineering, Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A4, Canada
Interests: building science/engineering; building materials/LCA/embodied carbon/IAQ (Indoor Air Quality); game theory; water management
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Dr. Lina Zhang

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Guest Editor

Business School, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
Interests: water rights; water resources management; water-use efficiency
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As an important factor in human social and economic activities, industrial development is closely related to water use, sewage discharge, and social and economic development; affects regional water resource allocation efficiency and water pollution discharge intensity; and is the fundamental source of water system pressure. The nature of this ecological problem is that the industrial development model is sometimes unsustainable, and due to this, many regions in the world excessively consume their water resources, while simultaneously creating water environment deterioration and water ecological damage to varying degrees. The main crisis regarding water security has changed from insufficient supply to the excessive use of its environmental resource carrying capacity, which is in a state of overload or critical overload in some regions. The environmental carrying capacity of water resources has become an important factor restricting the economic development of many regions around the world.

This Special Issue of the journal Water invites innovative and multidisciplinary scientific contributions that explore the adaptive development mechanism between the environmental carrying capacity of water resources and economic development while also examining its quantitative and qualitative management dimensions.

Dr. Yang Kong
Dr. Dagmawi Mulugeta Degefu
Dr. Lina Zhang
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

water resource management
environmental assessment
carrying capacity
industry development
economic growth

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Related Special Issue

Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity, 2nd Edition in Water (1 article)

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

19 pages, 5132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Responsibility-Sharing and Compensation Scheme for Agricultural Water Pollution Transfer Embodied in China’s Inter-Provincial Trade

by Xia Xu and Qianwen Yu

Water 2026, 18(5), 647; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18050647 - 9 Mar 2026

Viewed by 459

Abstract

Agricultural transboundary water pollution induced by inter-regional trade poses a complex and pressing challenge for environmental governance. This study integrates an agricultural water pollutant emission inventory, multi-regional input–output model, responsibility-sharing framework, and ecological compensation scheme to establish the collaborative control of agriculture water pollution embodied in China’s inter-provincial trade. The findings reveal, firstly, that inter-provincial agricultural trade led to significant transfers of agricultural water pollution, predominantly flowing from economically developed provinces to less developed provinces, reflecting a mismatch between economic gains and environmental costs. Specifically, Gansu and Qinghai bear the largest agricultural water pollution impact (2.15 Kt and 3.25 Kt, respectively), while it is still a loss in terms of economic net benefits (0.21 trillion and 0.06 trillion yuan, respectively). Secondly, the economic benefit responsibility-sharing shows that for most provinces, responsibility lies between production- and consumption-based accounting and provides a feasible pathway for responsibility sharing. Third, economically developed provinces like Beijing, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang bear the largest compensation liabilities to others, with 1.60 Kt, 0.73 Kt, and 0.54 Kt, respectively. Conversely, provinces including Qinghai, Gansu, and Jiangxi require the greatest compensation inflows, at 2.55 Kt, 0.62 Kt, and 0.34 Kt, respectively. Finally, the maximum acceptable payment value for compensating provinces and the minimum acceptable compensation value for recipient provinces are identified. Our study elucidates the inter-provincial disparities in agricultural water pollution burdens and economic benefits, establishing a quantitative foundation for optimizing responsibility-sharing and compensation strategies in China, which is crucial for fostering regional cooperation in water pollution control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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28 pages, 1314 KB

Open AccessArticle

Drivers of Farmers’ Intention of Water-Saving Irrigation Technology Adoption: A Social–Ecological Systems Perspective

by Zhaoxian Su, Hao Fu, Yijing Li and Jihao Chen

Water 2026, 18(5), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18050551 - 26 Feb 2026

Viewed by 605

Abstract

Addressing the challenges of agricultural water scarcity requires widespread adoption of water-saving irrigation technologies (WSIT) by farmers, yet actual adoption rates remain persistently low. To investigate farmers’ intention to adopt WSIT, this study employs the social–ecological systems framework and analyzes samples of 3007 farmers using a mixed-methods approach combining binary logistic regression and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA). The results indicate that cognitive levels, social environment, production conditions, grassroots governance, and policy environment exert significant positive effects on farmers’ intention to adopt WSIT. The study identifies several conditional configurations leading to high adoption intention, including endowment-driven, governance-substitution, internalization-driven, contextual configuration, and resilience-compensation pathways. Further analysis reveals that an integrated “soft power” enablement system, which is composed of effective grassroots governance, deep individual cognition, targeted policy support, and a favorable social environment, could effectively overcome constraints posed by limited production conditions or exposure to natural risk. These findings provide critical insights for relevant sectors to develop differentiated policies to promote WSIT adoption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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26 pages, 1425 KB

Open AccessArticle

Factors and Mechanisms Influencing Reclaimed Water Prices in China

by Zhiying Shao, Kaiyuan He, Yufei Han, Chen Feng and Yingwen Ji

Water 2026, 18(4), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18040526 - 23 Feb 2026

Viewed by 753

Abstract

Under the new water control philosophy, reclaimed water utilization is an important strategic measure to increase water supply and reduce water environmental pollution. This has important implications for addressing the water crisis in urban development. The scientific and reasonable price of reclaimed water has a positive effect on promoting the utilization of reclaimed water and improving the utilization rate of urban reclaimed water. Therefore, this study extracted the influencing factors of reclaimed water price through grounded theory and used the ISM method to elucidate the logical hierarchy and investigate their influencing mechanisms. The results indicate that the structural system of factors affecting the price of reclaimed water was composed of 16 factors, which could be divided into four hierarchical levels. Among them, the external value of reclaimed water utilization, the technical level of reclaimed water processes, the regional economic development level, and the quality differences between reclaimed water and conventional water were the deep-rooted factors that affect the price of reclaimed water. In the end, the policy implications regarding the management of reclaimed water prices were proposed from the perspectives of surface-level direct factors, middle-level indirect factors, and deep-rooted factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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25 pages, 3368 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Prediction and Early Warning of Water Environmental Carrying Capacity Based on Kernel Density Estimation Method and Markov Chain Model

by Weijun He, Liang Zhao, Yang Kong, Qingling Peng, Liang Yuan, Thomas Stephen Ramsey, Dagmawi Mulugeta Degefu and Xuexue Wu

Water 2025, 17(23), 3414; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17233414 - 30 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 787

Abstract

Water environmental carrying capacity (WECC) is an important support for social and economic development and is closely related to regional production and consumption patterns. Exploring the level of WECC and its evolution trend is very urgent for the scientific formulation of targeted early warning control strategies. Therefore, this study first constructs the index system of WECC with a DPSIR model, and conducts the quantitative evaluation by combining the Kantiray Weighting method and the TOPSIS method. Then, the Kernel Density Estimation method and the Markov Chain model are applied to explore the spatiotemporal variation characteristics of WECC and predict its evolution trend. Finally, a case study of 17 municipal administrative regions in Hubei Province is carried out. The main findings are as follows: (1) The WECC status in Hubei Province during 2013–2022 was generally satisfactory and showed a trend of fluctuating improvement. (2) The spatial agglomeration effect of WECC in Hubei Province was significant, showing a distribution pattern of “high-high” agglomeration and “low-low” agglomeration. The improvement of the WECC in eastern Hubei was obvious, while that in central Hubei was slower, and the cities with a lower level of WECC had a more significant improvement effect. (3) Overall, the WECC of cities in Hubei Province tends to shift to a higher level. In a short period of time, the grade improvement of urban WECC in Hubei Province is more likely to occur between adjacent grades. With the increase in time span, the probability of this transition rises gradually. This study has proposed a set of methods for the evaluation and prediction of WECC status, which can provide important decision-making guidance for the early warning and regulation of regional differentiated WECC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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15 pages, 1791 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water Resources Asset Accounting in the Yangtze River Economic Belt Based on the Perspective of Water Resources-Ecological-Economic Circular Coupling

by Quan Zheng, Haoran Wang and Xuyang Liu

Water 2025, 17(23), 3340; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17233340 - 21 Nov 2025

Viewed by 814

Abstract

As a key element in maintaining ecological balance and ensuring human survival and development, the accounting of water resource assets is a fundamental prerequisite for the preparation of natural resource balance sheets. To achieve regional water resource balance and promote high-quality, coordinated socio-economic development, this study is grounded in the cyclical evolution of water resource assets and the concept of water-ecology-economy coupling. A classification method, which integrates physical water resources and virtual water resources, is proposed to define the accounting boundaries of water resource assets. Additionally, a multi-dimensional accounting model is developed that integrates the flows of physical and virtual water, allowing for a systematic assessment of the stock and flow characteristics of water resource assets within an area of 2.0523 million square kilometers across 11 provinces and municipalities in the Yangtze River Economic Belt. It is concluded that the top six water resource assets in the Yangtze River Economic Belt are concentrated in the middle and lower reaches of the river, and the proportion of virtual water in the southwestern provinces is less than 26%, among other significant regional differences in water resource assets. The findings aim to clarify the value transformation pathways of composite water resources, enhance the methodological system of water resource accounting, and provide a scientific basis for informed decision-making regarding optimal water resource allocation within the basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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19 pages, 914 KB

Open AccessArticle

Driving Factors of Spatial–Temporal Differences in Agricultural Energy Consumption Evolution in the Yellow River Basin: A Perspective of Water–Energy–Food–Land–Population Nexus

by Chenjun Zhang, Jiaqin Shi, Xiangyang Zhao and Erjie Pei

Water 2025, 17(20), 2971; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17202971 - 15 Oct 2025

Viewed by 802

Abstract

The Yellow River Basin (YRB) is a core region for agricultural production in China; however, its agricultural energy consumption exhibits significant spatial–temporal differences, and it is confronted with the practical demand for the coordination of low-carbon transition and food security. Investigating the driving factors of agricultural energy consumption in the YRB is crucial for optimizing its agricultural energy structure, advancing low-carbon agricultural development, and offering targeted support for regional agricultural sustainability. Based on the data of YRB from 2000 to 2021, this paper employs the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method to decompose the driving factors of agricultural energy consumption in the basin by examining the interrelationships among five key factors: water, energy, food, land, and population. The results showed the following: (1) Per capita food production efficiency effect is the main factor driving the increase in agricultural energy consumption, followed by the water consumption output efficiency effect, the effective irrigation rate effect, the actual irrigation ratio effect, and the population scale effect. (2) The agricultural employment structure effect, the energy consumption output efficiency effect, the intensity of agricultural acreage effect, and the irrigation quota effect have reduced agricultural energy consumption. (3) Specifically, in Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Henan, the largest incremental effect is the per capita food production efficiency effect. However, the primary driver in the remaining six provinces is the water consumption output efficiency effect. Regarding the reduction effect, the largest driver in Gansu, Shanxi and Shandong is the energy consumption output efficiency effect. Further, this paper analyzes the drivers of spatial differences in agricultural energy consumption in nine places. The research results can provide theoretical support and practical references for formulating targeted regional policies for the low-carbon transition of agricultural energy in the YRB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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44 pages, 3756 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reflection of Intercontinental Freshwater Resources on Geopolitical Risks: Time Series Analysis

by Sabiha Oltulular

Water 2025, 17(16), 2380; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162380 - 12 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2452

Abstract

Water, an indispensable resource for life and not a complete substitute, is indispensable for energy production, industry, agriculture, and ecosystem sustainability. In particular, the limited and unequal distribution of freshwater reserves makes water a strategic power element on a global scale, making competition inevitable. Increasing water demand and decreasing water resources increase regional and global security risks, causing water to go beyond being a vital natural resource and become a determining factor in diplomacy, conflict, and the balance of power. This study aimed to examine the relationship between freshwater resources and geopolitical risk between 1961 and 2021 using the ARDL model. All models had long-run relationships between water resources and geopolitical risk. In the long-run, a 1% decrease in water resources increased geopolitical risk by 0.37% in Chile, 0.30% in Colombia, 0.46% in the Netherlands, 0.42% in Thailand, 0.44% in Ukraine, and 0.29% in Venezuela. The adjustment rates for the prior period imbalances were estimated to be 0.75% in Switzerland, 0.68% in Chile, 0.28% in Colombia, 0.45% in the Netherlands, 0.86% in Thailand, 0.14% in Ukraine, and 0.59% in Venezuela. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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22 pages, 1094 KB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Water Management: Governance Innovation, Technological Integration, and Policy Pathways Toward Economic and Ecological Sustainability

by Yongyu Dai, Zhengwei Huang, Naveed Khan and Muwaffaq Safiyanu Labbo

Water 2025, 17(13), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131932 - 27 Jun 2025

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 11893

Abstract

Smart water management (SWM) represents a transformative shift in urban water governance, integrating advanced digital technologies—including the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), big data analytics, and digital twin modeling—to enable real-time monitoring, predictive analytics, and adaptive decision-making. While drawing extensively on a structured literature review to build its theoretical foundation, this manuscript is primarily presented as a research paper that combines conceptual analysis with empirical insights derived from comparative case studies, rather than a standalone comprehensive review. A five-layer system architecture—encompassing data sensing, transmission, processing, intelligent analysis, and decision support—is introduced to evaluate how technological components interact across operational layers. The model is applied to two representative cases: Singapore’s Smart Water Grid and selected pilot programs in Chinese cities (Shenzhen, Hangzhou, Beijing). These cases are analyzed for their level of digital integration, policy alignment, and performance outcomes, offering insights into both mature and emerging smart water implementations. Findings indicate that the transition from manual to intelligent governance significantly enhances system performance and robustness, particularly in response to climate-induced disruptions. Despite benefits such as reduced non-revenue water and improved pollution control, challenges including high initial investment, data interoperability issues, and cybersecurity risks remain critical barriers to widespread adoption. Policy recommendations focus on establishing national standards, promoting cross-sectoral data sharing, encouraging public–private partnerships, and investing in workforce development to support the long-term sustainability and scalability of smart water initiatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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19 pages, 3011 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Key Influencing Factors of Water Quality in Tai Lake Basin Based on XGBoost-SHAP

by Weiling Li, Menghua Deng, Chang Liu and Qing Cao

Water 2025, 17(11), 1619; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111619 - 27 May 2025

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3161

Abstract

Tai Lake Basin, a key freshwater resource in eastern China, has garnered attention due to widespread cyanobacterial blooms. Effective water quality management is vital for the region’s sustainable development. Investigating the seasonal variations of water quality parameters (WQPs) in Tai Lake Basin is essential for devising targeted strategies to enhance water quality. This study employs an interpretable machine learning model (XGBoost-SHAP) to identify the most important factors of water quality using daily monitoring WQP data from 2023 to 2024. Results revealed that dissolved oxygen (DO), total phosphorus (TP), permanganate index (CODMn), and ammonia nitrogen (NH₃-N) are primary determinants of water quality in the basin, while water temperature, pH, total nitrogen (TN), and turbidity showed minimal impact (SHAP value < 1). Seasonal analysis demonstrated that DO exerts a substantial influence on water quality during spring, summer, and autumn; TP and CODMn have a stable and negative impact on water quality throughout the year; NH₃-N has a relatively significant negative impact on winter water quality. Recommendations include enhancing DO levels in spring and summer, fortifying TP and NH₃-N concentrations in winter, and implementing tailored strategies in response to seasonal variations. This research offers valuable insights to guide decision-making processes aimed at enhancing water quality and safeguarding the water environment in the Tai Lake Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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26 pages, 3530 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Assessment of Water Resource Carrying Capacity Based on Improved Matter–Element Extension Modeling

by Juqin Shen, Yong Nie, Xin Huang and Meijing Ma

Water 2025, 17(8), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17081197 - 16 Apr 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1313

Abstract

The evaluation of water resource carrying capacity (WRCC) is crucial for guiding regional water management. This study established a WRCC evaluation index system and standards for the middle and lower Yangtze River, covering four subsystems: water resources, and social, economic, and ecological dimensions. The study improved the matter–element extension model by introducing triangular fuzzy numbers. The enhanced model was then used to assess the WRCC of seven provinces in the middle and lower Yangtze (2015–2023). Furthermore, GIS was used to examine the spatiotemporal variations and driving factors of WRCC. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) from 2015 to 2023, the evaluated level of WRCC in the Yangtze River’s middle and lower reaches remained stable and improved overall. Among them, the WRCC of Shanghai rose most significantly, from level III to level I. Zhejiang’s WRCC remained stable at level II, while Hubei and Hunan remained stable at level III, but with a trend toward improvement. Jiangsu’s WRCC fluctuated significantly. (2) The evaluation values of the subsystems in each region show a certain level of volatility. The water resource subsystem remained relatively stable in most regions, the social subsystem showed some variability, and both the economic and ecological subsystems developed well, showing positive effects in economic development and ecological protection in various regions. (3) The water resource subsystem had the greatest influence on WRCC. Per capita water resources, the urbanization rate, the greening coverage rate in built-up areas, and per capita GDP have the most significant impact on the WRCC in the Yangtze River’s middle and lower reaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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19 pages, 695 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Influencing Factors and Multiple Driving Paths of Social Integration of Reservoir Resettlers: An Empirical Analysis Based on SEM and fsQCA

by Lili Diao, Jiachuan Chen, Jihao Chen and Zhaoxian Su

Water 2025, 17(7), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17071073 - 3 Apr 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1695

Abstract

This study systematically analyzes the factors influencing the social integration of reservoir resettlers, aiming to provide a theoretical basis and policy recommendations for enhancing their social integration. Grounded in social capital theory and social cognitive theory, the influencing factors are categorized into five dimensions: social norms, social trust, social networks, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) are employed to analyze field survey data and uncover the mechanisms through which these factors influence social integration. The results indicate that social norms, social trust, and social networks positively affect resettlers’ self-efficacy and outcome expectations, which, in turn, have a positive impact on their social integration. The fsQCA results further identify five configurations, which are consolidated into three driving types: the internal-external driving path, the proactive integration path, and the capital-enabled path. By integrating the perspectives of social capital and social cognition and employing both SEM and fsQCA methodologies, this study provides valuable insights for policy-making related to the social integration of reservoir resettlers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Resources, Economic Development and Environment Carrying Capacity)

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