Search Results (52)

One of the key techniques for successful almond tree cultivation in newly irrigated areas is increasing planting density. To investigate this, field experiments were carried out over five consecutive growing seasons (2019–2023) to evaluate the effects of two different tree densities on the vegetative growth and productivity of almond trees (Prunus dulcis, cv. Tuono) in a semi-arid climate in Southern Italy. The two planting densities tested were 1660 trees per hectare (achieved with 1.5 m intra-row spacing × 4.0 m inter-row spacing) and 833 trees per hectare (3.0 m × 4.0 m spacing). The results showed that significantly lower values of annual shoot length were recorded in both 2020 and 2021, years characterized by late frosts in March and April. However, with the exception of the first year (2019), when the plants had not yet been influenced by the different planting densities, the annual shoot length was significantly higher in the lowest planting density compared to the highest one in the following years. Additionally, higher annual trunk growth values were recorded at the lower planting density compared to the higher density. By the end of the five seasons, trees at the lower density showed a cumulative trunk growth of 177 mm, whereas those at the higher density reached only 137 mm. No significant effect of the two different tree planting densities on overall fruit development, specifically length, width, and thickness, was observed. As the trees matured, kernel yield per tree increased under both planting densities. However, significantly higher individual tree yields were recorded in the lower-density configuration, reaching 2.70 kg per tree by the end of five seasons, compared to 1.68 kg per tree in the high-density arrangement. In contrast, kernel yield per hectare was greater in the densely planted configuration, achieving 2.81 t ha⁻¹, whereas the lower-density planting resulted in a yield of 2.25 t ha⁻¹ by the end of the same period. Furthermore, no significant differences were observed between the two tree planting densities in terms of the percentage of hull per fruit, kernel per nut, or the occurrence of double seeds. Similarly, morphological traits of the nuts and kernels, such as weight, length, width, and thickness, remained unaffected. However, slightly higher kernel weights were noted at the lower planting density. Full article

Young vegetative quinoa (YVQ) has gained attention as a high-protein leafy crop for human consumption with potential for cultivation in Mediterranean and semiarid regions. We investigated the effects of inter-row spacing and genotype on YVQ fresh and dry matter (DM) yield, protein content (PC), and protein yield during summer cultivation in northern Israel in two separate, independent, randomized field experiments over two consecutive years (2020–2021). We hypothesized that row spacing and genotypic differences would significantly impact yield and PC. Inter-row spacing significantly affected plant density, ranging from 55 to 366 plants m⁻². Fresh and DM yields ranged from 4957 to 28,469 kg ha⁻¹ and 661 to 3737 kg DM ha⁻¹, respectively. PC ranged from 20.5 to 26.6% and was not significantly influenced by row spacing. Total protein yield ranged from 147 to 884 kg ha⁻¹. Among the five tested genotypes, no significant differences were observed in fresh (7477–17,776 kg ha⁻¹) or dry (1122–2199 kg DM ha⁻¹) biomass, PC (21.2–26.5%), or protein yield (260–579 kg ha⁻¹), suggesting limited genetic differentiation under the specific environmental and agronomic conditions tested. Amino acid analysis confirmed the presence of all nine essential amino acids, fulfilling over 30% of the recommended daily intake per 100 g DM. These findings highlight YVQ as a promising, sustainable, and protein-rich leafy crop for Mediterranean agriculture. Further research should explore multi-harvest potential, mechanical weeding, and optimized agronomic practices for commercial-scale production. Full article

In spaced crop systems, understanding the interactions between different types of vegetation in the agroecosystem and solar radiation is essential for understanding surface radiation dynamics. This study aimed to both seasonally and spatially quantify and characterize the components of the solar radiation balance in the cultivation of green dwarf coconut. The experiment was conducted in Santa Izabel do Pará, Brazil, and monitored the following meteorological parameters: rainfall, incident global radiation (R_g), and net radiation (R_n). Landsat 8 satellite images were obtained between 2021 and 2023, and the estimates for global and net radiation were subsequently calculated. The resulting data were subjected to mean tests and performance index analysis. The dry season showed higher values of R_g and R_n due to reduced cloud cover. In contrast, the rainy season exhibited lower R_g and R_n totals, with reductions of 21% and 23%, respectively. In the irrigated area, a higher R_n/R_g fraction was observed compared to the non-irrigated area, with no significant differences between the row and inter-row zones. In the non-irrigated system, there were no seasonal differences, but a spatial difference between row and inter-row was noted, with the row having higher net radiation (9.95 MJ m⁻² day⁻¹) than the inter-row (8.36 MJ m⁻² day⁻¹), which could result in distinct energy balances at a micrometeorological scale. Spatially, the eastern portion of the study area showed higher global radiation totals, with the radiation balance predominantly ranging between 400 and 700 W m⁻². Based on the performance indices obtained, satellite-based estimates proved to be a viable alternative for characterizing the components of the radiation balance in the region, provided that the images have low cloud cover. Full article

Orchards are complex agricultural systems with various characteristics that influence crop evapotranspiration (ET_c), such as variety, tree height, planting density, irrigation methods, and inter-row management. The preservation of biodiversity and improvement of soil fertility have become important goals in modern orchard management. Consequently, the traditional approach to weed control between rows, which relies on herbicides and soil mobilization, has gradually been replaced by the use of permanent living mulch (LM). This study explored the potential of a remote sensing (RS)-assisted method to monitor water use and water productivity in apple orchards with permanent mulch. The experimental data were obtained in the Lis Valley Irrigation District, on the Central Coast of Portugal, where the “Maçã de Alcobaça” (Alcobaça apple) is produced. The methodology was applied over three growing seasons (2019–2021), combining ground observations with RS tools, including drone flights and satellite images. The estimation of ET_a followed a modified version of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) single crop coefficient approach, in which the crop coefficient (K_c) was derived from the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) calculated from satellite images and incorporated into a daily soil water balance. The average seasonal ET_a (FAO-56) was 824 ± 14 mm, and the water productivity (WP) was 3.99 ± 0.7 kg m⁻³. Good correlations were found between the K_c’s proposed by FAO and the NDVI evolution in the experimental plot, with an R² of 0.75 for the entire growing season. The results from the derived RS-assisted method were compared to the ET_a values obtained from the Mapping Evapotranspiration at High Resolution with Internalized Calibration (METRIC) surface energy balance model, showing a root mean square (RMSE) of ±0.3 mm day⁻¹ and a low bias of 0.6 mm day⁻¹. This study provided insights into mulch management, including cutting intensity, and its role in maintaining the health of the main crop. RS data can be used in this management to adjust cutting schedules, determine K_c, and monitor canopy management practices such as pruning, health monitoring, and irrigation warnings. Full article

The planting of inter-row cover vegetation has long been practised in Western European fruit-growing regions, yet research in this area remains limited in many countries. With the rise of organic farming, the role and selection of inter-row cover species are becoming increasingly important. Proper species selection enhances weed control and promotes biodiversity, supporting flowering plants and beneficial insects in orchards. The six-year research aimed to develop a multi-species, perennial, multifunctional inter-row cover species mixture for a dry continental climate, which is suitable for soil protection and the displacement of heat-loving, drought-tolerant, invasive weed species. There was another expectation for this native seed mixture to be able to regenerate spontaneously and to be sustainable in the orchard for a long time with minimal maintenance. Based on our results, the two multi-species mixtures (15 and 18 species) successfully reduced the cover of weed species, and their composition changed in the direction of the natural flora characteristic of the area. According to general management practices, native species could not widely appear in the control rows created by mowing the local weed flora. Full article

A range of remote sensing platforms provide high spatial and temporal resolution insights which are useful for monitoring vegetation growth. Very few studies have focused on fruit orchards, largely due to the inherent complexity of their structure. Fruit trees are mixed with inter-rows that can be grassed or non-grassed, and there are no standard protocols for ground measurements suitable for the range of crops. The assessment of biophysical variables (BVs) for fruit orchards from optical satellites remains a significant challenge. The objectives of this study are as follows: (1) to address the challenges of extracting and better interpreting biophysical variables from optical data by proposing new ground measurements protocols tailored to various orchards with differing inter-row management practices, (2) to quantify the impact of the inter-row at the Sentinel pixel scale, and (3) to evaluate the potential of Sentinel 2 data on BVs for orchard development monitoring and the detection of key phenological stages, such as the flowering and fruit set stages. Several orchards in two pedo-climatic zones in southeast France were monitored for three years: four apricot and nectarine orchards under different management systems and nine cherry orchards with differing tree densities and inter-row surfaces. We provide the first comparison of three established ground-based methods of assessing BVs in orchards: (1) hemispherical photographs, (2) a ceptometer, and (3) the Viticanopy smartphone app. The major phenological stages, from budburst to fruit growth, were also determined by in situ annotations on the same fields monitored using Viticanopy. In parallel, Sentinel 2 images from the two study sites were processed using a Biophysical Variable Neural Network (BVNET) model to extract the main BVs, including the leaf area index (LAI), fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FAPAR), and fraction of green vegetation cover (FCOVER). The temporal dynamics of the normalised FAPAR were analysed, enabling the detection of the fruit set stage. A new aggregative model was applied to data from hemispherical photographs taken under trees and within inter-rows, enabling us to quantify the impact of the inter-row at the Sentinel 2 pixel scale. The resulting value compared to BVs computed from Sentinel 2 gave statistically significant correlations (0.57 for FCOVER and 0.45 for FAPAR, with respective RMSE values of 0.12 and 0.11). Viticanopy appears promising for assessing the PAI (plant area index) and FCOVER for orchards with grassed inter-rows, showing significant correlations with the Sentinel 2 LAI (R² of 0.72, RMSE 0.41) and FCOVER (R² 0.66 and RMSE 0.08). Overall, our results suggest that Sentinel 2 imagery can support orchard monitoring via indicators of development and inter-row management, offering data that are useful to quantify production and enhance resource management. Full article

Small-scale vegetable producers often do not have modern mechanical equipment; as a result, a significant amount of inter-row and all intra-row weeding is performed manually. The development of small, affordable machines increases the competitiveness of organic vegetable production, improves sustainable land use, and reduces dependence on unwanted herbicides. In this study, a simple modular lightweight e-hoe with the capability for both inter-row (1st degree of freedom) and intra-row (2nd degree of freedom) weeding was proposed. The e-hoe uses battery-powered in-wheel drives to move the platform (3rd degree of freedom) and additional drives to operate the tools. The e-hoe was evaluated in a small greenhouse using three different tools: a traditional hoe, an adjusted rounded hoe, and an adjusted spring tine narrow hoe. The experiments were conducted at four different tool rotation speeds, using specially designed 3D-printed models for crops and weeds for evaluation. The results indicate that the efficiency of the e-hoe rates up to 95% when the right tool design and rotation speed are combined. Based on the battery capacity, the machine can be operated for approximately 3.7 h, enabling the weeding of about 3050 plants. Full article

Maintaining biodiversity in agricultural landscapes is a major challenge for environmental protection in Europe. Vineyards rely heavily on agrotechnical interventions such as herbicide use and tillage for weed control, which affect biodiversity and can lead to soil erosion and resistant weed populations. The fragmentation of agricultural landscapes affects biodiversity by altering community composition and often reducing plant population sizes and genetic diversity. However, it can also increase the abundance of certain species and enhance population resilience to environmental change. Vineyards can support high levels of biodiversity and provide ecosystem services due to their semi-natural habitat structure. This research evaluates vegetation biodiversity using phytosociological relevés in different vineyards. Our results show that species richness and biodiversity are significantly influenced by vineyard age and management type. This study highlights differences in the representation of plant functional groups, with perennial taxa in grassy inter-row contributing to anti-erosion functions and serving as food sources for pollinators. The root zone around vine trunks shows an increase in invasive species with vineyard age, posing a risk to the agroecosystem. Vineyards predominantly follow a ruderal ecological strategy, using nutrients and light efficiently, while tolerating management disturbances. Understanding these dynamics is critical for developing sustainable vineyard management practices that support biodiversity and ecological resilience, counteract the homogenization of agricultural landscapes, and promote the coexistence of viticulture and species-rich ecosystems. Full article

Viticulture is a perennial cropping system that provides large inter-row space as a non-crop habitat for a range of different taxa. Extensive vegetation management has been shown to increase biodiversity and ecosystem service provision in vineyards. Important soil ecosystem services are decomposition, nutrient cycling, and pest regulation provided by the mesofauna (e.g., Acari and Collembola). However, studies investigating the effects of inter-row management on soil mesofauna are scarce. We studied the effect of inter-row management intensity (complete vegetation cover, alternating vegetation cover, and bare ground) and local pedoclimatic conditions on Acari and Collembola in nine Austrian vineyards. Our results showed that the clay content of the soil was the most important factor and increased the abundances of both analyzed taxa. Complete and alternating vegetation cover increased their abundance in comparison to bare ground management. Higher soil respiration slightly contributed to higher abundances of those two taxa in both years. In conclusion, besides the positive effects of the clay content in the soil, complete and alternating vegetation cover are feasible management practices for increasing soil mesofauna in vineyards. Full article

Wine grape ecosystems with low species richness and reliance on agrichemicals have weak resilience to environmental impacts. Increasing biodiversity through green infrastructure (GI) not only helps mitigate some of these impacts but can provide additional benefits to growers and the public. Despite this, many vineyards have limited GI. While scholars suggest incentive programmes may help to encourage GI implementation, few studies have evaluated their effectiveness. We surveyed winegrowers and their vineyards in the Waipara Valley sub-region, New Zealand, to evaluate an incentive programme aimed at increasing GI on vineyards, particularly indigenous vegetation. The results indicated the programme was effective in encouraging growers to plant indigenous plants in areas incapable or unsuitable for growing grapes, largely in support of nature conservation, aesthetics, branding, and sales. It was less successful in encouraging growers to plant them in productive areas. While substantial GI, primarily in the form of inter-row cover crops, was managed in these areas, most were exotic plants seen by growers to provide superior services (especially erosion control, weed suppression and pest regulation) at lower management complexity and cost. Growers identified six GI enablers: (1) promoting GI types that provide greater grower services than disservices and costs of implementation and management; (2) implementing GI where biophysical conditions support success; (3) providing assistance with plant selection and design; (4) providing GI implementation and/or management funding; (5) developing GI certification policies and regional association programmes; and (6) providing government GI regulations, strategies, and incentives. They also identified five barriers: (1) insufficient grower appreciation for indigenous GI services; (2) grower concerns that some GI disservices were greater than their services; (3) grower belief that costs of GI implementation and/or management were greater than those of alternative practices; (4) harsh and remote GI growing conditions; (5) lack of grower knowledge regarding how to design plantings, especially those that could provide multiple services; and (6) lack of sufficient financial resources for GI implementation and/or management. Twenty recommendations for improving GI implementation are provided. Full article

Root rot and gummosis caused by Phytophthora spp. are considered one of the most important citrus diseases in Brazil. Symptoms of Phytophthora spp. infection in citrus plants are associated with lesions on the bark at the base of the plant, roots, and even lower branches. Inappropriately performed cultural practices, such as excessive irrigation and practices that result in reduced aeration and soil drainage, favor the disease. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of Urochloa ruziziensis mulching provided by an ecological mower on the severity of Phytophthora nicotianae root rot and the development of citrus plants and their root system. The experiments were carried out under controlled conditions on Rangpur lime seedlings kept in pots containing soil from ‘Hamlin’ orange orchards with the use of an ecological mower or a conventional mower in the management of inter-row vegetation for six years. Urochloa ruziziensis mulching (9 t ha⁻¹) was added or not to the pots. The inoculation of P. nicotianae in the roots occurred through infection of the soil with a solution containing mycelium and sporangia of the pathogen. A 2 × 2 × 2 factorial scheme was used, with the following factors A: soil type, B: inoculation of P. nicotianae and C: mulching of U. ruziziensis. The attributes of plant development, such as root growth, average number of leaves, leaves and dry mass of shoots and roots, in addition to assessments of the severity of disease in the roots, were evaluated. The mulch of U. ruziziensis did not promote an increase in root rot. The soil resulting from this management promoted the better development of Rangpur lime plants. Therefore, vegetation management of inter-row with an ecological mower is not associated with increased symptoms of Phytophthora root rot. Full article

Under the increasing global energy demand, the new European Union Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 encourages combinations of energy production systems compatible with biodiversity conservation; however, in photovoltaic parks, panels shadowing the effects on soil health and biodiversity are still unknown. This study (location: Northern Italy) aimed to evaluate the effect of ground-mounted photovoltaic (GMPV) systems on soil arthropod biodiversity, considering two parks with different vegetation management: site 1—grassland mowed with tractor; site 2—grassland managed with sheep and donkeys. Three conditions were identified in each park: under photovoltaic panel (row), between the panel rows (inter-row), and around the photovoltaic plant (control). The soil pH and organic matter (SOM), soil arthropod community, biodiversity, and soil quality index (e.g., QBS-ar index) were characterised. Differences between the two GMPVs were mainly driven by the SOM content (higher values where grazing animals were present). No differences were observed in site 1, even if a high heterogeneity of results was observed for the soil biodiversity parameters under the panels. In site 2, SOM and pH, as well as arthropods biodiversity and QBS-ar, showed low values in the row. Soil fauna assemblages were also affected by ground-mounted panels, where Acarina, Collembola, Hymenoptera, and Hemiptera showed the lowest density in the row. This study suggests that ground-mounted solar panels had significant effects on below-ground soil fauna, and was more marked depending on the system management. Furthermore, the results obtained for the inter-row were similar to the control, suggesting that the area between the panel rows could be considered a good hotspot for soil biodiversity. Full article

The main objective of this study was to investigate soil–plant–water interactions based on field measurements of plant reflectance and soil water content (SWC) in different inter-row managed sloping vineyards. The following three different soil management applications were studied: tilled (T), cover crops (CC), and permanent grass (NT) inter-rows. We measured SWCs within the row and between rows of vines. Each investigated row utilized 7 to 10 measurement points along the slope. Topsoil SWC and temperature, leaf NDVI and chlorophyll concentrations and leaf area index (LAI) were measured every two weeks over the vegetation period (May to November) using handheld instruments. We found that management method and slope position can significantly affect the soil’s physical and chemical properties, such as clay or soil organic carbon contents. Cover crops in the inter-row significantly reduced average SWC. The in-row average topsoil SWCs and temperatures were lower in all study sites compared to the values measured in between rows. Significantly higher SWCs were observed for the upper points compared to the lower ones for CC and T treatments (58.0 and 60.9%, respectively), while the opposite was noted for NT. Grassed inter-row grapevines had significantly lower leaf chlorophyll content than the other inter-row managed sites (p < 0.001). The highest average leaf chlorophyll contents were observed in the T vineyard (16.89 CCI). Based on slope positions, the most distinguishable difference was observed for the CC: 27.7% higher chlorophyll values were observed at the top of the slope compared to the grapevine leaves at the bottom of the slope (p < 0.01). The leaf NDVI values were not as profoundly influenced by slope position in the vineyard as the chlorophyll values were. For overall LAI values, the T treatment had significantly lower values compared to NT and CC (p < 0.001). Moderate correlations were observed between NDVI and LAI and soil nitrogen and carbon content. In general, we found that both inter-row management and slope position can significantly influence soil parameters and affect plant growth, and consequently can accelerate plant stress under sub-optimal environmental conditions such as prolonged drought. Full article

By increasing plant diversity in agroecosystems, it has been proposed that one can enhance and stabilize ecosystem functioning by increasing natural enemies’ diversity. Food web structure determines ecosystem functioning as species at different trophic levels are linked in interacting networks. We compared the food web structure and composition of the aphid– parasitoid and aphid-hyperparasitoid networks in two differentially managed plum orchards: plums with inter-rows of oats as a cover crop (OCC) and plums with inter-rows of spontaneous vegetation (SV). We hypothesized that food web composition and structure vary between OCC and SV, with network specialization being higher in OCC and a more complex food web composition in SV treatment. We found a more complex food web composition with a higher species richness in SV compared to OCC. Quantitative food web metrics differed significantly among treatments showing a higher generality, vulnerability, interaction evenness, and linkage density in SV, while OCC presented a higher degree of specialization. Our results suggest that plant diversification can greatly influence the food web structure and composition, with bottom-up effects induced by plant and aphid hosts that might benefit parasitoids and provide a better understanding of the activity, abundance, and interactions between aphids, parasitoids, and hyperparasitoids in plum orchards. Full article

Cicadomorpha (Hemiptera) insects are currently responsible for a growing negative impact on the agricultural economy due to their ability to directly damage crops or through the capacity to act as vectors for plant pathogens. The phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of Pierce’s disease in vineyards, is exclusively transmitted by insects of this infraorder. Therefore, knowledge of the Cicadomorpha species and understanding their biology and ecology is crucial. In this work, in 2018 and 2019, the canopy and inter-row vegetation of 35 vineyards distributed in mainland Portugal were sampled to investigate species composition, richness, and diversity of the Cicadomorpha community, with a special focus given to vectors and potential vectors of X. fastidiosa. A total of 11,834 individuals were collected, 3003 in 2018 and 8831 in 2019. Of the 81 species/morphospecies identified, only five are considered vectors or potential vectors of this pathogen, namely, Cicadella viridis (Linnaeus, 1758), Philaenus spumarius (Linnaeus, 1758), Neophilaenus campestris (Fallén, 1805), Lepyronia coleoptrata (Linnaeus, 1758), and N. lineatus (Linnaeus, 1758). Cicadella viridis was the most abundant xylem sap feeder, followed by P. spumarius. In addition, Cicadomorpha that cause direct damage to vines and vectors of grapevine yellows’ phytoplasmas were also collected and identified in the sampled vineyards. The results suggested that vectors and potential vectors of X. fastidiosa and a large proportion of the population of Cicadomorpha have a positive correction with inter-row vegetation. Full article