Search Results (247)

Background/Objectives: Beeswax, a complex natural secretion primarily derived from Apis mellifera and Apis cerana, has evolved from an ancient remedy into a multifunctional excipient and bioactive material in modern pharmaceutical sciences. This review evaluates its physicochemical properties, pharmaceutical applications, and emerging biomedical potential, while addressing current quality and regulatory challenges. Methods: A narrative review was conducted by analyzing literature on the chemical composition, functional properties, conventional uses, advanced drug delivery applications, pharmacological activities, and quality control of beeswax, emphasizing structural characteristics, formulation roles, and integration into innovative delivery technologies. Results: Beeswax is a lipid-based matrix composed of over 300 constituents, including wax esters, hydrocarbons, and free fatty acids, conferring thermoplasticity, biocompatibility, and structural stability. Traditionally, it functions as a stiffening agent, viscosity modifier, and emulsion stabilizer in topical formulations, forming an occlusive barrier that enhances skin hydration. In advanced systems, it serves as a solid lipid matrix in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), microspheres, and 3D-printed tablets, enabling controlled drug release and improved bioavailability of lipophilic compounds. It also exhibits antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing activities, while beeswax-derived policosanols show potential cardiovascular and gastroprotective benefits. However, concerns regarding paraffin adulteration and pesticide contamination highlight the need for stringent analytical and regulatory oversight. Conclusions: With rigorous quality control and sustainable sourcing, beeswax remains a versatile, eco-friendly material bridging traditional medicine and advanced pharmaceutical innovation. Full article

This study investigates the potential of Fischer–Tropsch (FT) waxes, synthesized from natural gas, as high-performance and sustainable alternatives to conventional ester waxes in cosmetic applications. To evaluate their technical viability, a series of FT waxes with varying hydrocarbon chain lengths were synthesized and characterized. Safety was rigorously assessed through human patch tests and irritation surveys, while sensory attributes, including gloss and transparency, were compared against beeswax and carnauba wax. Furthermore, the impact on the skin barrier was analyzed using Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy to determine lipid packing characteristics. The results demonstrated that FT waxes possess an excellent safety profile with irritation levels comparable to traditional waxes. Sensory evaluations revealed that adjusting the hydrocarbon chain length allows for precise control over melting points and texture, offering significant formulation flexibility. Crucially, lipid packing analysis indicated that FT waxes promote an orthorhombic organization, effectively mimicking and reinforcing the native crystalline structure of the human skin barrier. These findings conclude that FT waxes provide both superior sensory properties and functional skin-barrier benefits, positioning them as versatile and innovative ingredients for advanced dermo-cosmetic formulations. Full article

Queen bees form the core of honeybee colonies for reproduction, and their quality is the most critical factor affecting their reproductive and productive performance. In apicultural production, queen rearing requires beekeepers to perform manual larval grafting. This is strongly limited by the beekeepers’ eyesight and technical proficiency and has become a bottleneck restricting the development of modern apiculture. To overcome this long-standing technical challenge, we designed beeswax-based tools for queen rearing without grafting larvae for Apis mellifera. The tools consist of three core components: a single-sided hollow beeswax comb foundation, beeswax larval holders and beeswax queen cells with a hole at the bottom. The holders are paired with the hollows of the beeswax comb foundation and the hole of the beeswax queen cells. Following the construction of the comb by honeybees on the hollow foundation, the queen was confined to lay eggs on the single-sided comb. Subsequently, larval holders containing eggs or larvae were pulled out, assembled with beeswax queen cells, embedded in the buckles of queen-rearing frames, and placed into colonies for queen rearing. In order to verify the feasibility of the tools, a paired comparative experiment was conducted using Apis mellifera, with the tools as the treatment group and manual larval grafting as the control group. We evaluated multiple key indicators, including acceptance rate of queen cells, queen cell length at emergence, emergence rate, weight of newly emerged queen, morphological indices (thorax length/width, forewing width, hindwing length, head width), ovariole number and the relative mRNA expression of four queen development-related genes (Vg, Hex110, Hex70b, Jhamt). No significant differences were observed in queen cell acceptance rate and emergence rate between the two groups. However, compared with the control group, queens reared using the tools exhibited significantly greater queen cell length at emergence, higher emergence weight, superior morphological traits, more ovarioles and significantly upregulated expression of all four assayed genes. In conclusion, the tools can be used to rear high-quality Apis mellifera queens effectively with superior phenotypic and molecular traits compared to conventional grafting, which provides efficient and convenient queen-rearing tools for beekeepers. Full article

Bigels (BGs) are promising biphasic systems for extrusion-based 3D food printing inks. In this study, BG inks were formulated by combining a 6% beeswax—4% monoglycerides oleogel (OG) with a 4% gelatin—1% guar gum hydrogel (HG). The BGs were formulated at OG:HG ratios of 10:90 up to 50:50. The effect of the OG:HG ratio on appearance, microstructure, extrusion, rheological and thermal characteristics was investigated to assess printability and shape fidelity. All formulations showed no signs of phase separation during storage, while changes in color were observed with increasing OG content, suggesting modifications in phase distribution and light-scattering behavior. Increasing the OG content induced a transition from OG-in-HG systems to a bicontinuous structure at a 50:50 ratio. All inks showed shear-thinning behavior (G′ > G″) and viscoelastic properties suitable for 3D printing. BG with intermediate OG contents displayed moderate extrusion forces (7.27–9.00 N) and improved structural recovery (up to ≈60%), consistent with desirable printability and appropriate yield/flow points to ensure shape fidelity after deposition. Thermal analysis further confirmed the coexistence of OG and HG phases, ensuring structural integrity at printing temperature. These findings demonstrate the potential of BG as tunable, fat-reduced inks for 3D food structuring. Full article

This study evaluated Apis mellifera brood fat extracts as a sustainable alternative to beeswax for anti-inflammatory topical delivery, including their formulation into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). Brood fat was extracted using acetone, ethyl acetate (EA), and hexane, and the resulting extracts were characterized for fatty acid composition and physicochemical properties. Safety was assessed using the hen’s egg chorioallantoic membrane test and cytotoxicity testing in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Anti-inflammatory activity was assessed by inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) production. The most suitable extract was formulated into NLCs using sugar squalane as liquid lipid, and the effects of lipid ratio and preparation method were investigated. The results showed that the ethyl acetate extract had the highest yield. Compared with beeswax, all fat extracts exhibited a favorable oleic acid–rich fatty acid profile with comparable crystallinity and thermal behavior, while showing significantly enhanced anti-inflammatory activity (p < 0.05). All extracts and their NLCs were non-irritating and non-cytotoxic. Ethyl acetate extract-based NLCs exhibited favorable particle sizes (72.1 ± 0.3 nm) and narrow polydispersity (0.14 ± 0.00), with high-pressure homogenization producing smaller particles compared to probe sonication without affecting IL-6 or TNF-α inhibition. Therefore, A. mellifera brood fat extract is a sustainable anti-inflammatory lipid source with strong potential as an alternative to beeswax in topical nano-formulations. Full article

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) can be a sustainable alternative to petrochemical plastics for flexible packaging, especially in rainforests and tropical regions where native starch sources such as cassava are abundant. However, one problem preventing TPS packaging from widespread use is its susceptibility to moisture. This study evaluated TPS formulations based on Amazonian cassava starch reinforced with plantain leaf fibers, beeswax, and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) particles. The plastic compounds were extruded to obtain pellets and then films at 120–130 °C. The resulting films were then cut and heat-sealed to obtain flexible packaging. Different properties of the TPS packages were evaluated, such as mechanical strength, water vapor transmission (WVTR), color, infrared spectrum (FT-IR), and moisture adsorption. The results showed that the formulation with beeswax (2% w/w), plantain leaves powder (1% w/w), and LDPE powder (2% w/w) had a higher tensile strength (5.99 MPa) and moisture barrier (WVTR = 366.6 g m⁻² d⁻¹) compared to the control formulation only with plasticizers (glycerol and water) but without reinforcements (0.48 MPa and 1486.6 g m⁻² d⁻¹, respectively). Films with only beeswax (4% w/w) and plantain leaves powder (2.5% w/w) had tensile strength = 5.53 MPa and WVTR = 716.8 g m⁻² d⁻¹, with higher moisture adsorption compared to the samples with LDPE. In both cases, homogeneous and heat-sealable bags were obtained. The reinforced TPS films can be used to reduce the environmental impact generated by single-use packaging applications such as food commercialization. Full article

Active packaging using edible coating could be an essential and sustainable alternative solution to preserve the properties of fruits and to prevent food loss and food waste. Chitosan, a linear polysaccharide obtained by deacetylation of chitin, has been widely used as an edible coating of fruits. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a chitosan-based edible coating incorporated with Aloe vera and beeswax. Edible coatings were formulated with the following proportions: (% V/W: chitosan: Aloe vera: beeswax) as F1 (chitosan 79.5%: Aloe vera extract 19.5%: beeswax 1%), F2 (chitosan 79.2%: Aloe vera extract 19.2%: beeswax 1.5%), and F3 (chitosan 79%: Aloe vera extract 19%: beeswax 2%). After characterization, films were applied to Musa paradisiaca (banana) and Diospyros kaki (persimmons) varieties: Hychia and Fuyu, respectively, of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The film containing a higher concentration of beeswax, F3, attained the lowest moisture content (22.12% ± 0.57). The edible coatings, especially (F3) treated fruits, improved significantly in the quality attributes of banana and persimmon as: % weight loss (95.11 ± 0.023, 158 ± 0.81), pH (5.3 ± 0.005, 5.67 ± 0.005), titratable acidity (0.521% ± 0.05, 0.692% ± 0.002), total antioxidant capacity (34.6%, 49.2%), decay incidence (30%, 45%). Chitosan and Aloe vera extract incorporated with a beeswax edible coating had a significant effect on all the studied characteristics and there was an increased shelf life for both M. paradisiaca and D. kaki. Our findings demonstrated that a coating enriched with Aloe vera extract and beeswax is an efficient bioformulation to improve shelf life, preserve the properties of fruit, and prevent food loss. Full article

Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are considered highly significant economic insects. It is a source of valuable food and medicinal products such as honey, bee pollen, royal jelly, bee brood, and beeswax, which possess excellent nutritional and pharmacological properties. Nevertheless, honey bee health and productivity were often challenged by various environmental factors. Therefore, bee colony management is of the utmost importance. In this light, bee supplements and gut microbiota are crucial to ensure that bees receive sufficient nutritional value to maintain their health and productivity. In this study, we isolate and characterize lactic acid bacteria from the hindgut of the worker bee. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that three isolated bacteria were Apilactobacillus kunkeei (AK), Lactiplantibacillus sp. (LP), and Lactobacillus brevis (LB). Three species of lactic acid bacteria were investigated for potential probiotic properties by supplementing 50% (w/w) sucrose syrup in the form of a direct-fed microorganism (DFM). The supplement with DFM had no negative effect on average lifespan. Examination took place of the impact of probiotics on the development of the hypopharyngeal glands (HPGs) in the bee’s head at days 3, 6, and 9 post-treatments. The cage-bees fed by pollen and DFM syrup exhibited acini surface areas ranging from 0.020 to 0.023 mm². The L. brevis (LB) group exhibited enhanced HPG development, with an average acini size of 0.027 ± 0.007 mm² at day 6, while the non-treatment control had an average acini size of 0.023 ± 0.006 mm². The significant size differences were maintained throughout the 9-day period. In addition, the DFM syrup enhanced microbial protein content in the bee head, digestibility, and community complexity compared with the negative control groups. Therefore, the DFM syrup with a potential strain of probiotic may enhance overall honey bee health status. Full article

Heritage materials science techniques, including pXRF, FTIR-ATR, XRD, microphotography, and microsampling, have peeled back concealed layers of polychromy on a Roman Mithraic altar near Hadrian’s Wall. The results break new ground by exposing the interplay between light and dark and the transformative impact of colour cast onto cultic carved stone. A powerful pigment palette is revealed, including vibrant cinnabar/vermilion letters overlying an unprecedented purple inscription panel created from a compound of Egyptian blue, ultramarine, cinnabar/vermilion, red ochre, red lead, and realgar framed with purple, Egyptian blue, ultramarine, and orpiment. The panel was covered in a golden surface crafted from a previously unknown recipe of pyrite (fool’s gold) mixed with beeswax. Tantalising traces are also detected on some iconographic features, but conservator intervention and degradation processes combined to leach colour from the sculpted relief. These are paradigm-shifting results. They force a reinterpretation of the symbolism and performance of altars as personifications of dedicators, and we identify, for the first time, high-ranking Mithraic initiates by name and grade. Critically, we present a digital reconstruction of the altar with original polychromy that revolutionises our understanding of relief-sculpted Roman inscriptions—a category that has, until now, remained underexplored by the burgeoning polychromy research community. Full article

Beekeeping is a widespread economic activity in rural Tanzania, supporting over 2 million livelihoods. The country’s forests and woodlands, covering approximately 55% of its land area, provide habitat for an estimated 9.2 million honeybee colonies. This positions Tanzania as the second-largest honey producer in Africa and tenth globally. Absence of current information and effective policies hinders exploitation of the industry’s potential. This review presents scientific insights into Tanzania’s beekeeping sector, focusing on honeybee species, bee products, management practices, and conservation. Among three documented subspecies of Apis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758), A. m. scutellata is the most widespread and commonly managed by indigenous beekeepers. Tanzania annually produces over 31,000 tonnes of honey and 1800 tonnes of beeswax, generating approximately USD 77.5 million and contributing about 1% to national GDP. The industry supports livelihoods, food security, and biodiversity conservation. Its sustained growth requires effective legal and administrative support, expanded scientific research, enhanced innovation, coordinated partnerships, and integrated nationwide initiatives. Full article

This study focused on the incorporation of Piper betle L. essential oil (EO) into β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and the subsequent incorporation of this complex into chitosan-based films with a beeswax coating. The objective of this study was to develop a hydrophobic, antibacterial bio-based film suitable for preservation applications. A total of four formulations were prepared: (1) chitosan film with no EO or β-CD, (2) chitosan film with β-CD only, (3) chitosan film with EO only, and (4) chitosan film with both EO and β-CD. The EO concentration was varied between 0, 0.5 and 1% (v/v) in the formulation, while β-CD was used at a concentration of 5% (w/v). The films were characterized using FTIR to analyze functional groups, SEM for surface morphology, contact angle to assess hydrophobicity, and tensile tests for mechanical properties. The results indicated significant changes in functional group characteristics and surface morphology across the different formulations. Beeswax coating enhanced the water impermeability and increased the hydrophobicity of the films, improving the contact angle from 59.93 ± 1.79° to 97.84 ± 0.77° and the mechanical strength from 0.28 ± 0.07 MPa to 24.49 ± 0.04 MPa. The antibacterial activity, assessed using the Kirby–Bauer method, showed that the EO concentration significantly inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli, with a maximum inhibition zone of 7.43 ± 0.60 mm observed at the highest EO concentration. These findings demonstrate that chitosan-based film modifications, incorporating both EO and β-CD, significantly improve the material properties and antibacterial activity, indicating its potential for food preservation applications. Full article

Structuring oils using oleogels (OGs) represents a promising strategy for developing semi-solid lipid matrices with applications in food and other soft systems. This study evaluated the thermal stability and physicochemical properties of an oleogel (OG) formulated with extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and beeswax (BW, 6%). The oleogel and olive oil samples were initially characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG). The beeswax and oleogel samples were initially characterized by texture analysis. An antioxidant capacity (ORAC) analysis was initially applied to the beeswax sample. An initial rheometric analysis was applied to the oleogel sample. Fatty acid profiling and infrared spectroscopy were applied initially and finally to the oleogel and olive oil samples. During the thermal processing (80 °C, 14 days) of the oleogel and olive oil, analyses of the percentage of polar compounds, refractive index, and absorption parameters (K₂₃₂ and K₂₇₀) were performed. The oleogel exhibited a soft, pseudoplastic network, with lower hardness and mechanical strength than pure beeswax. Gelation modified the thermo-oxidative stability of EVOO, showing lower levels of polar compounds (from day 7 of heating; p = 0.028) and a slight delay in the onset of thermal degradation (Tonset), suggesting partial protection against the formation of polar degradation compounds. Furthermore, the evolution of K₂₃₂ indicated differences in the formation of primary oxidation products (p = 0.027) over the 14 days of heating, while K₂₇₀ showed no differences in the formation of secondary oxidation compounds. This reflects the complex interaction between the gelled matrix and the lipid deterioration mechanisms. Overall, the results demonstrate that the incorporation of beeswax allows for a partial reduction in degradation compounds in high-temperature processes, producing technologically functional oleogels that offer a potential alternative source for structuring solid fats. This work provides relevant evidence for the rational design of oleogels based on unrefined oils and opens new opportunities for their application in food systems and gelled matrices with thermal processing requirements. Full article

In this work, an archeological adhesive collected at Cantagrilli (near Florence) was chemically analyzed by applying gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry combined with the archeobotanical investigations. Data identify triterpenes, aged anhydride, benzoyl resin, and gelatinized starch in the sample. The multi-analytical approach allowed us to identify some molecular compounds, as well as their state of chemical decomposition (especially by applying the mass spectrometry techniques). On the other hand, archeobotanical measurements have provided useful but not unequivocal information regarding the possible origin of triterpenes from some terrestrial plants, combined with the presence of microorganisms and transformed chemicals (such as starch modified into gelatin). All this information is very useful to Prehistoric Archeologists for understanding the cultural processes and technologies used by ancient populations. Full article

Coatings are often applied in the materials industry to impart hydrophobic properties to the produced materials. Commonly used coatings contain plastics as well as perfluorinated compounds, which pose challenges for environmental sustainability due to their persistence and end-of-life impacts. Coatings based on natural wax, such as rapeseed, soy, palm or beeswax, constitute a key bio-based and more sustainable alternative. These waxes exhibit high hydrophobicity while also being biodegradable, offering opportunities to replace fossil-derived coatings within circular-economy material systems. Wax coating constitutes a protective layer that undergoes biodegradation after a certain amount of time. This paper presents the results of studies concerning the development of a wax coating characterized by a coarse microstructure that increases water resistance, and an appropriate susceptibility to biodegradation. It was revealed that all the analysed coatings were susceptible to biodegradation, although their rates varied markedly depending on wax type and form. The biodegradation of palm wax in bulk form and as a thick layer was 17% and 80%, respectively, after 180 days. Palm wax exhibited a pronounced ability to bind inorganic and organic matter deposits, which reduced the degradation rate. When applied as a thin coating, palm wax did not form such a barrier. Palm wax significantly influences coating durability because its surface undergoes morphic changes induced by bio-surfactants secreted by microorganisms. These changes the adhesion of organic and inorganic matter particles, and the layer thus established limits the diffusion of oxygen, enzymes and microorganisms to the wax coating. The tests demonstrated that the addition of palm wax to wax mixtures allows the degradation rate to be controlled, and that its inhibitory effect is strongly dependent on the geometry of the material. Full article

Honeybee products (HBPs), including honey, bee pollen, bee bread, royal jelly, propolis, beeswax, and bee brood, are increasingly used in food, nutraceutical, and cosmetic contexts. Because of their natural origin, HBPs can provoke allergic reactions ranging from localised dermatitis to life-threatening, systemic anaphylaxis. As the use of bee products for health purposes grows in apitherapy (a branch of alternative medicine), raising public awareness of their potential risks is essential. This narrative review synthesises the clinical manifestations of HBP allergy, culprit allergens present in each product, immunological mechanisms, diagnostic approaches, at-risk populations, and knowledge gaps. The analysis of the available literature suggests that, although relatively rarely, HPB may trigger allergic reactions, including anaphylactic shock. The sensitisation mechanism may be associated with both primary sensitisation and cross-reactivity and can be classified into type I (IgE-mediated) and type IV (T-cell-mediated). However, bee bread appears less allergenic than other HBPs, potentially due to lactic fermentation that can degrade allergenic proteins. Severe reactions following intake of bee bread have not been reported to date. Management of HBP allergic reactions centres on avoiding the products, educating about the risks, and providing more precise product labelling, specifying the allergen content. Individuals with atopy and beekeepers are at heightened risk of developing anaphylaxis; therefore, they should be particularly aware of the potential dangerous consequences of HPB use. Further research is needed to clarify the mechanisms of HBP allergies and improve safety for all users. Full article