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A special issue of Gels (ISSN 2310-2861). This special issue belongs to the section "Gel Analysis and Characterization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2025) | Viewed by 10325

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Dr. Xiaokang Na

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Guest Editor

School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
Interests: protein hydrogels; protein modification; protein self-assembly
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Wuchao Ma

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Guest Editor

College of Food and Bioengineering, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou 450001, China
Interests: design and fabrication of protein-based hydrogels and their application in foods
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Prof. Dr. Zihao Wei

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Guest Editor

College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266404, China
Interests: marine foods; bioactive ingredients; delivery systems
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue of Gels aims to explore recent advancements in gel-based systems within the food industry. We welcome the submission of papers that delve into innovative applications, novel materials, and the technological breakthroughs that are reshaping food processing, preservation, and enhancement. The scope of this Special Issue includes, but is not limited to, protein and polysaccharide gels, oleogels, nanogels, and composite gels. Emphasis will be placed on the functional properties of these gels, their role in enhancing food texture, stability, and nutritional value, and their potential application in the development of sustainable, health-promoting, and advanced food products. Examples include the utilization of protein hydrogels as cell culture meat scaffolds to support and guide cell differentiation, nanogels for the encapsulation and controlled release of bioactive compounds, and oleogels as healthier fat substitutes in bakery products. We encourage researchers to share experimental studies, reviews, and theoretical models that push the boundaries of current knowledge in this dynamic field.

Dr. Xiaokang Na
Dr. Wuchao Ma
Prof. Dr. Zihao Wei
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Gels is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

protein hydrogels
polysaccharide gels
nanogels
oleogels
food texture improvement
sustainable food development

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Related Special Issue

Advanced Gels in the Food System (2nd Edition) in Gels

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 8777 KB

Open AccessArticle

Designing Stable Mayonnaise: Rheological and Structural Performance Fortified with Antioxidant Star Fruit (Averrhoa carambola) Extract from Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction

by María Zúñiga-Navarro, Somaris E. Quintana and Luis A. García-Zapateiro

Gels 2026, 12(3), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030196 - 26 Feb 2026

Viewed by 477

Abstract

The preparation and characterization of phenolic extracts from Averrhoa carambola were performed to develop enriched mayonnaise-type emulsions, evaluating the effect on their physicochemical, rheological, and microstructural properties. Extracts were obtained by Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) employing different ethanol:water ratios, followed by the analysis of their Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Antioxidant Activity (AA). The 50:50 extract (AEt50) exhibiting the highest bioactivity was selected for the development of enriched mayonnaise, which was then subjected to stability, physicochemical, rheological, and microstructural analyses. Extraction yields ranged from 13% to 28%, with TPC values spanning 3251 to 4661 mg GAE/g of extract, and AA values between 49.25 and 81.67 µMol Trolox/g of extract. Subsequently, the strategic incorporation of the extract, coupled with pH adjustment, successfully maintained the pH of the final products at approximately 4.63 and preserved emulsion stability. This process resulted in a significant, dose-dependent increase in TPC and AA in the mayonnaise, with the highest concentration achieving nearly 9.0 mg GAE/g and the antioxidant activity de 60.0

μ

Mol Trolox/g. The microstructural integrity was maintained, with all droplet sizes remaining under 4 µm, though a visible change in color (ΔE) was observed. All samples exhibited shear-thinning, non-Newtonian behavior, accurately fitted to the Ostwald–de Waele model (R² > 0.982), and demonstrated a dominant elastic structure (G′ > G″) characteristic of high-quality solid-like gels. Thus, the incorporation of Averrhoa carambola extracts is a technically viable and effective alternative to develop stable food products enriched with functional bioactive compounds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gels in the Food System)

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18 pages, 1647 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermo-Oxidative Stability and Functional Properties of Extra Virgin Olive Oil Oleogels

by Denisse Bascuñan, Claudia Vergara, Cristian Valdes, Yaneris Mirabal, Roberto Quiroz, Jaime Ortiz-Viedma, Vicente Barros, Jaime Vargas and Marcos Flores

Gels 2026, 12(2), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12020116 - 28 Jan 2026

Viewed by 769

Abstract

Structuring oils using oleogels (OGs) represents a promising strategy for developing semi-solid lipid matrices with applications in food and other soft systems. This study evaluated the thermal stability and physicochemical properties of an oleogel (OG) formulated with extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) and beeswax (BW, 6%). The oleogel and olive oil samples were initially characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG). The beeswax and oleogel samples were initially characterized by texture analysis. An antioxidant capacity (ORAC) analysis was initially applied to the beeswax sample. An initial rheometric analysis was applied to the oleogel sample. Fatty acid profiling and infrared spectroscopy were applied initially and finally to the oleogel and olive oil samples. During the thermal processing (80 °C, 14 days) of the oleogel and olive oil, analyses of the percentage of polar compounds, refractive index, and absorption parameters (K₂₃₂ and K₂₇₀) were performed. The oleogel exhibited a soft, pseudoplastic network, with lower hardness and mechanical strength than pure beeswax. Gelation modified the thermo-oxidative stability of EVOO, showing lower levels of polar compounds (from day 7 of heating; p = 0.028) and a slight delay in the onset of thermal degradation (Tonset), suggesting partial protection against the formation of polar degradation compounds. Furthermore, the evolution of K₂₃₂ indicated differences in the formation of primary oxidation products (p = 0.027) over the 14 days of heating, while K₂₇₀ showed no differences in the formation of secondary oxidation compounds. This reflects the complex interaction between the gelled matrix and the lipid deterioration mechanisms. Overall, the results demonstrate that the incorporation of beeswax allows for a partial reduction in degradation compounds in high-temperature processes, producing technologically functional oleogels that offer a potential alternative source for structuring solid fats. This work provides relevant evidence for the rational design of oleogels based on unrefined oils and opens new opportunities for their application in food systems and gelled matrices with thermal processing requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gels in the Food System)

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28 pages, 2154 KB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Zero-Waste Valorization of African Catfish By-Products Through Integrated Biotechnological Processing and Life Cycle Assessment

by Orsolya Bystricky-Berezvai, Miroslava Kovářová, Daniel Kašík, Ondřej Rudolf, Robert Gál, Jana Pavlačková and Pavel Mokrejš

Gels 2026, 12(1), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12010045 - 1 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1069

Abstract

African catfish (Clarias gariepinus, AC) is one of the most widely farmed freshwater fish species in Central Europe. Processing operations generate up to 55% by-products (BPs), predominantly carcasses rich in proteins, lipids, and minerals. This study develops a comprehensive valorization process for ACBPs to recover gelatin, protein hydrolysate, fish oil, and pigments. The processing protocol consisted of sequential washing, oil extraction, demineralization, and biotechnological treatment to disrupt the collagen quaternary structure. A two-factor experimental design was employed to optimize the processing conditions. The factors included the extraction temperatures of the first (35–45 °C) and second fraction (50–60 °C). We hypothesized that enzymatic conditioning, combined with sequential hot-water extraction, would yield gelatin with properties comparable to those of mammalian- and fish-derived gelatins, while enabling a near-zero-waste process. The integrated process yielded 18.2 ± 1.2% fish oil, 9.8 ± 2.1% protein hydrolysate, 1.7 ± 0.7% pigment extract, and 25.3–37.8% gelatin. Optimal conditions (35 °C/60 °C) produced gelatin with gel strength of 168.8 ± 3.6 Bloom, dynamic viscosity of 2.48 ± 0.02 mPa·s, and yield of 34.76 ± 1.95%. Life cycle assessment (LCA) identified two primary environmental hotspots: water consumption and energy demand. This near-zero-waste biorefinery demonstrates the potential for comprehensive valorization of aquaculture BPs into multiple value-added bioproducts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gels in the Food System)

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11 pages, 489 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Reaction Time of TGase on the Water-Holding Capacity and Gel Properties of Reduced-Fat and Reduced-Sodium Chicken Meat Batters

by Dongyang Zhu, Ke Xu, Zhuangli Kang, Bo Luo and Kun Fang

Gels 2025, 11(11), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11110848 - 23 Oct 2025

Viewed by 844

Abstract

In this paper, the effects of TGase reaction times (0, 6, 12, 18, and 24 h) at 4 °C on the solubility, emulsion stability, cooking yield, gel properties and water distribution of reduced-fat and reduced-sodium chicken meat batter were studied. The results showed that the reaction time had a significant effect on the water fluidity and quality characteristics of reduced-fat and reduced-sodium chicken meat batter. The solubility, cooking yield and water-holding capacity of salt-soluble proteins initially increased then decreased with extended reaction time, reaching maximum values of 65.50%, 96.13% and 96.00%, respectively, at 12 h. The emulsifying stability and textural properties initially increased, then decreased with extended reaction time (p < 0.05), achieving optimal levels at 12 h. In contrast, the initial relaxation time of T21 and T22 initially decreased (p < 0.05) and then increased (p < 0.05) with longer reaction times; the minimum values were 12 h, especially the free water decreased from 17.97% to 6.69%, consistent with the finding on water-holding capacity and gel properties. In conclusion, the reaction time of the TGase affected its effect on improving the gel effect of reduced-fat and reduced-sodium chicken meat batter, and the best effect was achieved at 12 h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gels in the Food System)

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17 pages, 2466 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication, Characterization, and In Vitro Digestion Behavior of Bigel Loaded with Notoginsenoside Rb1

by Yang Luo, Gao Xiong, Xiao Gong, Chunlei Xu, Yingqiu Tian and Guanrong Li

Gels 2025, 11(8), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11080624 - 9 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1400

Abstract

Notoginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), a bioactive saponin from Panax notoginseng, exerts cardio-cerebrovascular protective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and glucose homeostasis-regulating effects. However, its oral bioavailability is limited by gastric degradation and poor intestinal permeability. This study presents a food-grade bigel system for encapsulating Rb1 to enhance its stability and controlled-release performance. Oleogels were structured using monoglycerides (8%, w/w) in soybean oil. Rb1-loaded binary hydrogels (gellan gum/xanthan gum, 12:1 w/w) were emulsified in 10% Tween-80 (w/w). Bigels were formulated at varying hydrogel-to-oleogel ratios, and a ratio of 4:6 was identified as optimal. Stress-sweep rheological analysis revealed a dense gel structure with a peak storage modulus (G′) of 290.64 Pa—the highest among all tested ratios—indicating superior structural integrity. Confocal microscopy confirmed homogeneous encapsulation of Rb1 within the continuous hydrogel phase, effectively preventing payload leakage. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis detected a distinct endothermic transition at 55 °C (ΔH = 6.25 J/g), signifying energy absorption that enables thermal buffering during food processing. The system achieved an encapsulation efficiency of 99.91% and retains both water and oil retention. Effective acid protection and colon-targeted delivery were observed in the digestion test. Effective acid protection and colon-targeted delivery were observed in the digestion test. Less than 5% of Rb1 was released in the gastric phase, and over 90% sustained intestinal release occurred at 4 h. The optimized bigel effectively protected Rb1 from gastric degradation and enabled sustained intestinal release. Its food-grade composition, thermal stability, and tunable rheology offer significant potential for use in functional foods and nutraceuticals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gels in the Food System)

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21 pages, 1500 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Bilberry Pomace Powder Addition on the Physicochemical, Functional, Rheological, and Sensory Properties of Stirred Yogurt

by Ana Maria Blejan, Violeta Nour, Alexandru Radu Corbu and Georgiana Gabriela Codină

Gels 2024, 10(10), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10100616 - 25 Sep 2024

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 2639

Abstract

Fruit processing by-products could represent a sustainable ingredient for developing innovative dairy products. The present study was conducted to develop a novel functional yogurt by adding bilberry pomace powder (BPP) at 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% (w/w) levels in stirred-type yogurt production to confer color and to increase the dietary fiber and polyphenol content. Physicochemical properties of the yogurt samples, including color parameters, titratable acidity, pH, water holding capacity (WHC), and syneresis, as well as textural and rheological properties, were evaluated in yogurts on the 1, 14, and 28 days of refrigerated storage (4 °C). In addition, total phenolic content, total anthocyanin content, and radical scavenging activity were determined in yogurts, and sensory analysis was conducted. The results showed that BPP is a valuable source of polyphenols, dietary fiber, and oils rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs, n-6/n-3 ratio = 0.91). The incorporation of BPP imparted an attractive purple color to the yogurts, increased WHC, and reduced syneresis. Moreover, the addition of BPP improved the rheological properties, demonstrating that a more dense and stable yogurt gel network structure was obtained than the control. The yogurt enriched with 1.0% BPP received the highest scores for color, consistency, taste, and overall acceptability. Hence, bilberry pomace powder might be used as an ingredient to improve the nutritional and functional value of yogurts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gels in the Food System)

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17 pages, 2555 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation, Characterization and Formation Mechanism of High Pressure-Induced Whey Protein Isolate/κ-Carrageenan Composite Emulsion Gel Loaded with Curcumin

by Xiaoye He, Shuang Ren, Hu Li, Di Han, Tianxin Liu, Meishan Wu and Jing Wang

Gels 2024, 10(8), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10080542 - 21 Aug 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2336

Abstract

In order to explore the formation mechanism of the emulsion gel induced by high pressure processing (HPP) and its encapsulation and protection of functional ingredients, a curcumin-loaded whey protein isolate (WPI)/κ-carrageenan (κ-CG) composite emulsion gel induced by HPP was prepared. The effect of pressure (400, 500 and 600 MPa), holding time (10, 20 and 30 min) and concentration of κ-CG (0.8%, 1.0% and 1.2%, w/v) on the swelling rate, gel strength, the stability of curcumin in the emulsion gel, water distribution and its mobility, as well as the contents of interface protein were characterized. The results showed that the addition of κ-CG significantly reduced the protein concentration required for the formation of emulsion gel induced by HPP and greatly reduced the swelling rate of the emulsion gel. The gel strength and storage stability of the composite emulsion gels increased with the increase in pressure (400–600 MPa) and holding time (10–30 min). When the pressure increased to 500 MPa, the stability of curcumin in the emulsion gel significantly improved. When the ratio of WPI to κ-CG was 12:1 (the κ-CG concentration was 1.0%), both the photochemical and thermal stability of curcumin were higher than those of the other two ratios. The HPP significantly increased the mobility of monolayer water in the system, while the mobility of multilayer water and immobilized water was significantly reduced. Increasing the holding time and the concentration of κ-CG both can result in an increase in the interfacial protein content in the oil/water system, and the HPP treatment had a significant effect on the composition of the interfacial protein of the emulsion gel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gels in the Food System)

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