Search Results (25)

Electrical vehicle (EV) batteries, particularly lithium-ion batteries, pose significant environmental challenges due to their hazardous components, the effects of initial building-material fabrication, and the difficulties of recycling and disposal. Policies and legislative strategies adopted by different governments to solve these issues are investigated in this manuscript, specifically based on circularity and resource use. Important steps are end-of-life management, safe disposal and transportation, avoidance of hazardous gas emissions, circularity, resource use, fire prevention, and expanded producer accountability. As of February 2024, New Jersey is the first and only state in the United States that has adopted a thorough legislative framework for EV battery management, therefore establishing a standard for other states. California passed major laws encouraging Zero-Emission Vehicle (ZEV) battery manufacture and recycling. Other states are likewise trying to show initiative by implementing and changing laws. Globally, the European Union is leading, while Canada, Australia, China, and others have created strong rules of regulation. This paper looks at and contrasts the environmental problems of lithium-ion electric vehicles with the legislative actions made by different nations and states to solve these problems. By means of a thorough examination of these policies, this paper seeks to present a whole picture of the current scene and the best techniques for lifetime management of EV batteries that can be embraced by different governments. In this manuscript, a comparison is made between two leading legislations, specifically that of the state of New Jersey and the European Union. To achieve the most beneficial outcome, it is the responsibility of stakeholders to promote rules; emphasize battery recycling, secure disposal, and extended producer accountability; promote innovation in sustainable battery technology; and try to build a pragmatic approach to battery management to mitigate environmental impacts based on a hybrid version of the legislations from the state of New Jersey and the European Union. Full article

In this article, we propose an assessment framework for zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) in Germany using economic and customer-relevant criteria, with a focus on the mobility needs of individuals. Developing this framework required data obtained from four different sources: (1) literature, (2) semi-structured interviews, (3) a survey, and (4) market research. First, we derived the criteria relevant to assessing ZEVs from the literature and from semi-structured interviews. These interviews were conducted with individuals who have driving experience with both battery and fuel cell electric vehicles. Seven criteria were found to be particularly relevant for assessing ZEVs: greenhouse gas emissions, infrastructure availability, charging/refueling time, range, spaciousness, total costs, and driving dynamics (in descending order of importance). Second, we conducted a survey among 569 ZEV drivers and ZEV-interested individuals in order to weight these seven criteria. This survey was based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process approach. We then used market research to assign value scores to each criterion, representing the extent to which a particular ZEV meets a given criterion. Finally, we combined the value scores with the criteria weights to create the assessment framework. This framework allows for a transparent assessment of different ZEVs from the perspective of (potential) customers, without the need to repeatedly involve the surveyed participants. Our study is primarily useful for mobility planners, policymakers, and car manufacturers to improve ZEV infrastructure and support transportation systems’ transition towards low-carbon mobility. Full article

The Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) mandate by Canada’s federal government is a significant initiative towards achieving net zero emissions by 2050. In this context, to quantify the evolution scale of ZEVs alongside charging pile, a system dynamics (SD)-based policy simulation has been adopted for the city of Regina, Saskatchewan. The vector autoregressive model (VAR) equation is used as an input equation in the SD model for predicting ZEV sales. For model validity, calibration of the data with an available historical dataset alongside a sensitivity analysis has been performed. The SD model with two consecutive scenarios has been simulated until 2036, and “policy 2” has been found to be adequate. Full article

The real environment impacts the fuel and energy consumption of any vehicle: technology, physical and social phenomena, traffic, drivers’ behaviour, and so on; many of them are difficult to quantify. The authors’ methodology was used to test the real impact of vehicles in “standard” urban conditions, and many generations of hybrid powertrains are compared. One of the latest performance indexes is the percentage of time the vehicle runs with zero emissions (ZEV). For example, the hybrid vehicle tested ran up to 80% with no emissions and fuel consumption below 3 L per 100 km. A few energy performance indicators were compared between five vehicles: one battery electric vehicle (BEV), two hybrid gasoline–electric vehicles (HEVs), and two traditional vehicles (one diesel and one gasoline). Their potential to use only renewable energy is unrivalled, but today’s vehicles’ performances favour hybrid power trains. This paper summarises the most sustainable powertrain for urban use by comparing experimental data from on-road testing. It also evaluates the benefits of reducing emissions by forecasting the Italian car fleet of 2025 and three use cases of the evolution of car fleets, with a focus on Rome. Full article

The current generation of Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) policies are designed to accelerate the transition away from conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) petrol and diesel vehicle fleets. However, the current focus on zero exhaust emissions and the lack of more detailed guidance regarding Non-Exhaust Emissions (NEEs) may mean that some of the trade-offs in transitioning to, e.g., Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) fleets may be missed by many in the commercial sector. Here, as part of early work on the scoping of the First Bus EURO VI Diesel Vehicle (E6DV) to BEV fleet upgrades, we estimate E6DV total particulate emissions to be ca. 62–85 and 164–213 mg.veh${}^{-1}$.km${}^{-1}$ for $P{M}_{2.5}$ and $P{M}_{10}$, respectively, and that the majority, typically 93–97%, are NEEs. We also discuss the complex interaction between E6DV/BEV properties and estimate potential changes resulting from the transition to BEVs as ranging from a decrease of ca. 2–12% to an increase of ca. 12–50% depending on a combination of weight difference, regenerative brake performance and journey type. Finally, we propose metrics that would allow fleet operators more insight into a wider range of emission outcomes at the scoping stage of a fleet upgrade. Full article

Transitioning to zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) is thought to substantially curb emissions, promoting sustainable development. However, the extent of the problem extends beyond tailpipe emissions. To facilitate decision-making and planning of future infrastructural developments, the economic, social, and technological factors of ZEVs should also be addressed. Therefore, this work implements the circular economy paradigm to identify the most suitable vehicle type that can accelerate sustainable development by calculating circularity scores for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) and two ZEVs, the Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs). The circularity assessment presents a novel assessment procedure that interrelates the environmental, economic, social, and technological implications of each vehicle type on the three implementation levels of the circular economy (i.e., The macro, meso, and micro levels). The results of our analysis suggest that not all ZEVs are considered sustainable alternatives to ICEVs. BEVs scored the highest relative circularity score of 36.8% followed by ICEVs and FCEVs scoring 32.9% and 30.3% respectively. The results obtained in this study signify the importance of conducting circular economy performance assessments as planning tools as this assessment methodology interrelate environmental, social, economic, and technological factors which are integral for future infrastructural and urban planning. Full article

This paper presents the performance analysis of a latest-generation hybrid vehicle (Toyota Yaris 2020) with a testing campaign in real road conditions and a comparison with the previous model (Toyota Yaris 2017). The study was conducted by applying the Real Drive Truth Test protocol, developed by the research group, validated and spread to other full hybrid vehicles: Toyota Prius IV (2016) and Toyota Yaris 2017 (2017). In the case of the 2020 tests, the co-presence on board—deemed unsafe in the usual ways given the ongoing pandemic—was achieved through precise and sophisticated remote control. An on-board diagnostic computer, video transmission and recording equipment guarantee the virtual co-presence of a technical control room and a driver. Thus, several engineers can follow and monitor each vehicle via a 4G modem (installed in each vehicle), analysing data, route and driver behaviour in real-time, and therefore even in the presence of a single occupant in the car under test. The utmost attention has also been paid to adopting anti-COVID behaviours and safety standards: limited personal interactions, reduced co-presence in shared rooms (especially in the control room), vehicle sanitising between different drivers, computers and technicians and video technicians working once at a time. The comparison between the two subsequent vehicle models shows a significant improvement in the performance of the new generation Yaris, both in terms of operation in ZEV (zero-emission vehicle) mode (+15.3%) and in terms of consumption (−35.1%) and overall efficiency of the hybrid powertrain (+8.2%). Full article

California has set two ambitious targets aimed at achieving a high level of decarbonization in the coming decades, namely (i) to generate 60% and 100% of its electricity using renewable energy (RE) technologies, respectively, by 2030 and by 2045, and (ii) introducing at least 5 million zero emission vehicles (ZEVs) by 2030, as a first step towards all new vehicles being ZEVs by 2035. In addition, in California, photovoltaics (PVs) coupled with lithium-ion battery (LIB) storage and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are, respectively, the most promising candidates for new RE installations and new ZEVs, respectively. However, concerns have been voiced about how meeting both targets at the same time could potentially negatively affect the electricity grid’s stability, and hence also its overall energy and carbon performance. This paper addresses those concerns by presenting a thorough life-cycle carbon emission and energy analysis based on an original grid balancing model that uses a combination of historical hourly dispatch and demand data and future projections of hourly demand for BEV charging. Five different scenarios are assessed, and the results unequivocally indicate that a future 80% RE grid mix in California is not only able to cope with the increased demand caused by BEVs, but it can do so with low carbon emissions (<110 g CO_2-eq/kWh) and satisfactory net energy returns (EROI_PE-eq = 12–16). Full article

South Korea has been suffering from high PM_2.5 pollution. Previous studies have contributed to establishing PM_2.5 mitigation policies but have not considered provincial features and sector-interactions. In that sense, the integrated assessment model (IAM) could complement the shortcomings of previous studies. IAM, capable of analyzing PM_2.5 pollution levels at the provincial level in Korea, however, has not been developed yet. Hence, this study (i) expands on IAM which can represent provincial-level spatial resolution in Korea (GCAM-Korea) with air pollutant emissions modeling which focuses on the road transportation sector and (ii) examines the zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) subsidy policy’s effects on PM_2.5 mitigation using the expanded GCAM-Korea. Simulation results show that PM_2.5 emissions decrease by 0.6–4.1% compared to the baseline, and the Seoul metropolitan area contributes 38–44% to the overall PM_2.5 emission reductions. As the ZEVs subsidy is weighted towards the light-duty vehicle 4-wheels (LDV4W) sector, various spillover effects are found: ZEVs’ share rises intensively in the LDV4W sector leading to an increase in its service costs, and at the same time, driving bus service costs to become relatively cheaper. This, in turn, drives an increase in bus service demand and emissions discharge. Furthermore, this type of impact of the ZEVs subsidy policy does not reduce internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) in freight trucks, although diesel freight trucks are a major contributor to PM_2.5 emissions and also to NO_x. Full article

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are evolving rapidly since the introduction of Toyota Prius into the market in 1997. As the world needs more fuel-efficient vehicles to mitigate climate change, the role of HEVs and PHEVs are becoming ever more important. While fuel economies of HEVs and PHEVs are superior to those of internal combustion engine (ICE) powered vehicles, they are partially powered by batteries and therefore they resemble characteristics of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) such as dependence of fuel economy on ambient temperatures. It is also important to understand how different extent of hybridization (a.k.a., hybridization ratio) affects fuel economy under various driving conditions. In addition, it is of interest to understand how HEVs and PHEVs compare with BEVs at a similar vehicle weight. This study investigated the relationship between vehicle mass and vehicle performance parameters, mainly fuel economy and driving range of PHEVs focused on 2018 and 2019 model years using the test data available from fuel economy website of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Previous studies relied on modeling to understand mass impact on fuel economy for HEV as there were not enough number of HEVs in the market to draw a trendline at the time. The study also investigated the effect of ambient temperature for HEVs and PHEVs and kinetic energy recovery of the regenerative braking using the vehicle testing data for model year 2013 and 2015 from Idaho National Lab (INL). The current study assesses current state-of-art for PHEVs. It also provides analysis of experimental results for validation of vehicle dynamic and other models for PHEVs and HEVs. Full article

This paper presents experiences from pilot-projects with battery-electric trucks in Norway, focusing on purchasing processes, technology, vehicle choices, user experience and various performance aspects. Furthermore, we discuss the electrification potential for battery-electric trucks and compare their total costs of ownership and associated socio-economic costs with internal combustion engine (ICE) trucks for a range of technological maturity scenarios. The results show that experiences have generally been positive but tailoring of use patterns is often required. Furthermore, at their current maturity level, battery-electric trucks could, to some extent, replace typical use of Norwegian ICE trucks, depending on the situation. In terms of costs, we expect that battery-electric light distribution trucks will first become competitive with ICE trucks when technology reaches mass production. Full article

The maritime industry, among all other industries, is being forced to gradually reduce its emissions. Legislation is one of the tools applying this pressure, and from 1 January 2020, it focuses on the reduction of sulfur percentage in the heavy fuel oil (HFO)-powered vessels to 0.5%. In the beginning of this paper, the harmful environmental contribution of the naval sector is presented, along with the current legislation. The maritime industry is in a transitional stage, diverging from fossil fuels through alternative technologies and fuels, aiming to become over the long term a zero-emission industry. However, there are many implemented technologies, mostly of a mechanical nature, that already improve the efficiency of vessels and indirectly reduce their emissions. Such technologies include shaft generators (SGs), scrubbers, etc. The aim is for alternative fuels and technologies such as solar and wind to be implemented, too. Such technologies, when combined with the advantages of digitalization and automation, can further reduce emissions toward zero-emission vessels (ZEVs) through integrated systems. The present paper serves the purpose of a common point of gathering, addressing, and explaining the latest updates, previous achievements, and future targets of the maritime sector. The very nature of the subject—electric propulsion in the maritime sector—makes it very difficult to find sufficient and trustworthy data. There are two main reasons for this problem. The first one is that electric vehicles became commercial at a large scale (electric cars) very recently, and are still in a transitional stage. The second reason is that the maritime industry is very competitive; therefore, state-of-the-art technologies and data that give each company the lead are rarely published, and when they do, it happens very discreetly. In the quantitative part of the paper, where the photovoltaic (PV) and battery system calculations take place, there is no use of a specific model rather than a simplified approach. The purpose of the calculations is to show that with the present technologies, a purely solar-powered commercial vessel (such as RoRo, passenger, etc.) is technically impossible, and that there could be only a small contribution—of around 7%—to the electricity needs of a roll-on/roll-off (RoRo)-passenger ship. The state of the art finds a very short number of vessels that already use battery propulsion, but is expected to increase in the upcoming years. The present paper not only presents an overview of the state-of-the-art achievements in the electric propulsion of vessels, it also considers the exploitation of the continuous growth that the battery market is facing. As stated before, batteries are on the up, and this is due to the emerging need for energy storage in electricity grids that depend increasingly on renewable energy sources (RES). The paper makes a first consideration about the feasibility and possible benefits of implementing grid-like battery systems on-board vessels. In such a scenario, vessels would acquire significantly bigger energy capacity, allowing greater travel distances, a possible contribution of 44% of the vessel’s total power requirements (propulsion included), and a surplus as far as electricity requirements are concerned. There is also the more futuristic long-term scenario where Green Ports would charge vessels purely from RES dedicated to the port’s needs. The last part of the paper contains a qualitative assessment about the possible impacts that a battery-powered maritime industry could have. Full article

This study aimed to develop a model to estimate the impacts of zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) adoption on CO₂ emissions and to evaluate efficacy of ZEV deployment strategies in achieving greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction goals. We proposed a modeling scheme to represent ZEVs in four-step trip-based travel demand models. We then tested six ZEV scenarios that were a cross-combination of three ZEV ownership levels and two ZEV operating cost levels. The proposed modeling scheme and scenarios were implemented on the Maryland Statewide Transportation Model (MSTM) to analyze the impacts of different ZEV ownership and cost combinations on travel patterns and on CO₂ emissions. The main findings were the following: (1) A high-ZEV ownership scenario (43.14% of households with ZEVs) could achieve about a 16% reduction in statewide carbon dioxide equivalent (CO₂Eq) emissions from 2015 base year levels; and (2) CO₂Eq emissions at a future year baseline (2030) (the Constrained Long-Range Plan) level dropped by approximately 11% in low-ZEV ownership scenarios, 17% in medium-ZEV ownership scenarios, and 32% in high-ZEV ownership scenarios. The high-ZEV ownership results also indicated a more balanced distribution of emissions per unit area or per vehicle mile traveled among different counties. Full article

The transportation industry contributes a significant amount of carbon emissions and pollutants to the environment globally. The adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) has a significant potential to not only reduce carbon emissions, but also to provide needed energy storage to contribute to the adoption of distributed renewable generation. This paper focuses on a design model and methodology for increasing EV adoption through automated swapping of battery packs at battery sharing stations (BShS) as a part of a battery sharing network (BShN), which would become integral to the smart grid. Current battery swapping methodologies are reviewed and a new practical approach is proposed considering both the technical and socio-economic impacts. The proposed BShS/BShN provides novel solutions to some of the most preeminent challenges that EV adoption faces today such as range anxiety, grid reliability, and cost. Challenges and advancements specific to this solution are also discussed. Full article

Transportation accounts for more than 20% of the total Greenouse Gas (GHG) emissions in Canada. Switching from fossil fuels to more environmentally friendly energy sources and to Zero-Emission Vehicles (ZEVs) is a promising option for future transportation but well to wheel emission and charging/refuelling patterns must also be considered. This paper investigates the barriers to and opportunities for electric charging and hydrogen refueling infrastructure incentives in Ontario, Canada and estimates the number of Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) that would be offset by infrastructure incentives. The paper also assesses the potential of electric and hybrid-electric powertrains to enable GHG reductions, explores the impact of the electricity supply mix for supporting zero-emission vehicles in different scenarios and studies the effect of the utility factor for PHEVs in Ontario. The authors compare the use of electric vehicle charging infrastructures and hydrogen refueling stations regarding overall GHG emission reductions for an infrastructure incentive funded by a 20-million-dollar government grant. The results suggest that this incentive can provide infrastructure that can offset around 9000 ICEVs vehicles using electricity charging infrastructure and 4000–8700 when using hydrogen refuelling stations. Having appropriate limitations and policy considerations for the potential 1.7 million electric-based vehicles that may be in use by 2024 in Ontario would result in 5–7 million tonne GHG avoidances in different scenarios, equivalent to the removal of 1–1.5 million ICEVs from the road. Full article