Regulations and Policies on the Management of the End of the Life of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electrical Vehicles
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Policy Implications of Restrictions and Incentives for Electric-Powered Vehicles
- Purchase incentives
- Charging infrastructure funding
- Federal fleet electrification funding
- EV manufacturing and supply chain funding and programs
2. Environmental Implications of Movement Toward EV Transportation
Findings and Implications of LCA Studies
3. Current Policy Approaches for EV Battery Recycling
3.1. US States Dealing with EV Battery Management Issues
3.1.1. New Jersey
Electric Vehicle Battery Disposal Requirement
Electric Vehicle Battery Labeling Requirement
Electric Vehicle Battery Need Assessment
Electric Vehicle Battery Management Plan
3.1.2. California
ZEV Battery Manufacturing Grants
Lithium-Ion Vehicle Battery Recycling Support
3.1.3. Illinois
Safe Disposal and Transport
End-of-Life Management
Consumer Stakeholder Education Program
3.1.4. Washington
Safe Disposal Practices
End-of-Life Management
Stakeholders Responsibilities
3.1.5. Nevada
Consumer Education
Material Extraction
Sustainability Ethics
Consumer Education Initiatives
3.1.6. Compendium of Other US Approaches
3.2. Other Countries Dealing with EV Battery Management Issues
3.2.1. Mexico
Classification and Identification
Safe Handling and Transportation
Storage and Treatment
Disposal and Recycling
3.2.2. Canada
3.2.3. The European Union
- Setting common rules for the battery segment across the EU,
- Proposing rules on recycled content in manufactured products to ensure the recovery of materials,
- Establishing requirements for sustainability and transparency of battery production and recycling, including the carbon footprint of battery manufacturing, ethical sourcing of raw materials and security of supply, and facilitating reuse, repurposing, and recycling.
Recycling Efficiency and Material Recovery Targets
Prohibition of Landfilling
Producer Responsibility and Due Diligence
Collection and Recycling Targets
Circular Economy and Carbon Footprint Reduction
Information and Transparency
- The framework for recycling comprises the following legal provisions:Waste regulation, which is following the EU Battery Directive.
- End-of-life management
- Reducing the number of dangerous materials in battery composition.
- Enforcing stringent guidelines for disposal, recycling, and collecting.
- Enforcing extended producer responsibility for the whole lifecycle management of batteries.
- Putting strict hazardous waste management procedures into place.
- Controlling dangerous substances to safeguard both the environment and public health.
3.2.4. The United Kingdom
Producer Responsibility
Compliance Schemes
Collection and Recycling
Reporting and Monitoring
Infrastructure Investment for Recycling
Battery Passport System
Standards and Laws
Automotive Sector Deal
3.2.5. China
Traceability System
Responsibility for Recycling
Recycling Procedures
Information Sharing
Monitoring and Enforcement
New Energy Vehicle Policy
Tax Breaks and Subsidies
Regulation Development
3.2.6. South Korea
Producer Responsibility
Recycling Objectives
Collection and Transportation
Recycling Procedures
Reporting and Monitoring
Initiatives for the Circular Economy
Government Incentives
Industry Developments
3.2.7. Japan
Legislation
Collection and Collection Points
Recycling Process
- a.
- Pre-processing: Batteries are disassembled to separate components like plastics and metals.
- b.
- Pyrometallurgy: High-temperature processing to extract valuable metals like nickel, cobalt, and lithium.
- c.
- Hydrometallurgy: Aqueous chemical processes to further purify and separate metals for reuse in new battery production.
Key Players in Recycling
Circular Economy Plans: The 4th Plan for Establishing a Circular Society (2018) Focuses on the following
- a.
- Regional revitalization through a circularization of materials system.
- b.
- Full circularizing throughout the life cycle of resources.
- c.
- Appropriate processing of waste or regeneration of resources.
Circular Economy Initiatives
Government Incentives
3.2.8. Chile
3.2.9. Brazil
3.2.10. Argentina
3.3. Key Comparisons
3.3.1. European Union
3.3.2. United States:
3.3.3. Key Differences
3.3.4. End-of-Life Management
- Responsibility was primarily on consumers and local governments.
- Limited producer involvement in end-of-life management
- Current trends:
- Increasing state-level EPR laws for batteries, including EV batteries [127]
- Producers are becoming more responsible for collection and recycling.
- Some manufacturers are implementing voluntary take-back programs [127]
- More established EPR framework compared to the US.
- Producers had some responsibility, but it was less comprehensive.
3.3.5. Key Changes
- Design considerations: There is a growing emphasis on designing products for easier disassembly and recycling, especially in the EU [124]
3.3.6. Glance at US
- Past Responsibilities
- Evolving Responsibilities
- Recent Legislative Developments
- Current Trends
- Future Directions
3.3.7. Difference in Philosophies
3.3.8. Comparison of New Jersey and European Union
4. Recommendations for Effective Regulatory Approaches
- The program would address a complex matrix of ownership and responsibility for collection, repair, extended use, and ultimately recycling, based on the reality that the majority of end-of-life batteries will not be managed by consumers, but rather by repair facilities, auto dealers or manufacturers, or vehicle demolition facilities.
- The program would acknowledge the economic and environmental value of the end-of-life batteries and would facilitate collection, transportation, and recycling. When prolonged use has occurred, like in the case of electrical power storage, other parties may be involved in the end-of-life process. Thus, the management system ought to be adaptable enough to handle a range of circumstances while maintaining accountability.
- Legislative programs should acknowledge efforts that are ongoing to create novel battery chemistries, occasionally with the use of alternative building materials, in order to enhance the performance of EV batteries. This indicates that in order to prevent instances where sub-optimal material recovery occurs from new battery design, a management program should not be unduly specific in mandating or preferring technologies or recycling processes. Encouraging maximal material recovery and reuse, facilitating energy-efficient processing, and minimizing waste creation during processing all require appropriate regulatory incentives.
- The program needs to be designed with the understanding that gathering, storing, and transporting end-of-life batteries is an essential part of recycling EV batteries. Right now, there are worries about a potential fire brought on by a battery integrity issue. Because of this, a management strategy needs to deal with storage and transit concerns, perhaps in coordination with US DOT regulations. Noting that the delivery of a single ton of battery units requires energy consumption, recycling processing facilities should be located near appropriate travel distances of densely populated areas.
- The battery management program should be designed in a way that facilitates the extended use of EV batteries that are no longer suitable for efficient usage in vehicles, due to the sustainability benefits associated with this practice. This may necessitate, among other things, paying attention to assigning accountability for final recycling in order to ensure efficient progress toward ultimate recycling when prolonged usage becomes unfeasible.
- Although the market forces governing raw materials promote the use of recycled materials in the production of batteries, further incentives in favor of this practice could increase the strategy’s acceptability. These incentives, including tax breaks, might be created and implemented at the state or federal levels, but they would probably be distinct from a battery management strategy.
- Effective regulatory approaches should include socioeconomic aspects for successful implementation.
5. Summary and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
EV | Electric Vehicle |
ZEV | Zero Emission Vehicle |
DOD | Depth Of Discharge |
LIB | Lithium Ion Battery |
LCA | Life Cycle Analysis |
EOL | End Of Life |
BESS | Battery Energy Storage System |
EU | European Union |
EPR | Extended Producer Responsibility |
PHEV | Plug in Hybrid Eclectic Vehicle |
USABC | United States Advanced Battery Consortium |
AAA | American Automobile Association |
IEA | International Energy Agency |
EPR | Extended Producer Responsibility |
ZE-MHDV | Zero-Emission Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicle |
CEC | California Energy Commission |
References
- International Energy Agency. Global EV Outlook 2023: Catching up with Climate Ambitions. 2023. Available online: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/dacf14d2-eabc-498a-8263-9f97fd5dc327/GEVO2023.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Argonne National Laboratory; Carlier, M. Estimated Plug-In Electric Light Vehicle Sales in the United States from 2016 to 2022 (in 1000 units). Argonne National Laboratory. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/665823/sales-of-plug-in-light-vehicles-in-the-us/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 191, 114176.111. Jaeger, J. These Countries Are Adopting Electric Vehicles the Fastest. World Resources Institute. Available online: https://www.wri.org/insights/countries-adopting-electric-vehicles-fastest (accessed on 30 October 2024).
- Tabuchi, H.; Plumer, B. How Green Are Electric Vehicles? New York Times, 23 June 2021. Available online: https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/02/climate/electric-vehicles-environment.html (accessed on 16 October 2024).
- Biden-Harris. Administration Announces New Standards and Major Progress for a Made-in-America National Network of Electric Vehicle Chargers. The White House. 2023. Available online: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/02/15/fact-sheet-biden-harris-administration-announces-new-standards-and-major-progress-for-a-made-in-america-national-network-of-electric-vehicle-chargers (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- America’s Clean Future Fund Act, S.395, 117th Congress. Congress.gov. 2021. Available online: https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/395 (accessed on 30 October 2024).
- Electric Vehicle Myths. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2023. Available online: https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/electric-vehicle-myths#fn-2 (accessed on 30 October 2024).
- Amazon. Motorcraft Battery—BAGM94RH7800. 2024. Available online: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B09GW7N7HT?linkCode=ogi&tag=pop-lift-20&ascsubtag= (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- EVGAS. Bring the Power of EV Charging to Your Customers. 2024. Available online: https://getevgas.com/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Motavalli, J. Massive EV Batteries Deliver Big Range—And Tons of Curb Weight. Autoweek, 16 March 2022. Available online: https://www.autoweek.com/news/a39449944/problem-with-ev-battery-weight/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Elements 2024, “Visualizing the Supply Deficit of Battery Minerals (2024-2034P),”. Elements Newsletter, 20 December 2024. Available online: https://elements.visualcapitalist.com/visualizing-the-supply-deficit-of-battery-minerals-2024-2034p/ (accessed on 20 December 2024).
- Witt, J.; Najman, L. Electric Car Battery Replacement Costs. Recurrent, 3 December 2024. Available online: https://www.recurrentauto.com/research/costs-ev-battery-replacement (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Kurczewski, N. How Much Does It Cost to Charge an Electric Car? Kelley Blue Book. 2024. Available online: https://www.kbb.com/car-advice/how-much-does-it-cost-to-charge-an-electric-car/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Hunt, G. Electric Vehicle Battery Test Procedures Manual Revision 2. 1996. Available online: https://avt.inl.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/battery/usabc_manual_rev2.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Martinez-Laserna, E.; Gandiaga, I.; Sarasketa-Zabala, E.; Badeda, J.; Stroe, D.-I.; Swierczynski, M.; Goikoetxea, A. Battery second life: Hype, hope or reality? A critical review of the state of the art. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 93, 701–718. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meegoda, J.; Charbel, G.; Watts, D. Sustainable Management of Rechargeable Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles. Batteries 2024, 10, 167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sustainable Battery Materials Process. Redwood Materials. 2023. Available online: https://www.redwoodmaterials.com/news/sustainable-battery-materials-process/ (accessed on 13 November 2024).
- Statista. Available Materials from Global Battery Recycling, by Material 2022. Statista. 2024. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1415338/battery-recycling-material-available-worldwide/ (accessed on 19 November 2024).
- Worldwide EV Battery Recycling Capacity by Country. Statista. 2023. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1333941/worldwide-ev-battery-recycling-capacity-by-country/ (accessed on 13 November 2024).
- Statista. Revenue Opportunity in Battery Reuse and Recycling by Country in 2021 and Projections to 2040. Statista. 2024. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1103253/revenue-opportunity-ruse-recycle-by-country/ (accessed on 19 November 2024).
- Statista. EU Battery Directive: Mineral recovery targets for batteries in Europe by material (2025 and 2030). Statista. 2024. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1333043/eu-battery-directive-mineral-recovery-targets/ (accessed on 19 November 2024).
- Meegoda, J.; Charbel, G.; Watts, D. Second Life of Used Lithium-Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles in the USA. Environments 2024, 11, 97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- California State Legislature, State of California. Battery Energy Storage Facilities: Emergency Response and Emergency Action Plans, Senate Bill 38. 2023. Available online: https://legiscan.com/CA/text/SB38/id/2832565#:~:text=California%20Senate%20Bill%2038&text=Bill%20Title%3A%20Battery%20energy%20storage,response%20and%20emergency%20action%20plans.&text=An%20act%20to%20amend%20Section,Utilities%20Code%2C%20relating%20to% (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Illinois General Assembly, State of Illinois. Environmental Protection Act, Senate Bill 3481. 2024. Available online: https://legiscan.com/IL/text/SB3481/id/2920420 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Busch, J. New GB Standard GB 18384-2020 about Electric Vehicles Safety Requirements. MPR China Certification. 2024. Available online: https://www.china-certification.com/en/new-gb-standard-gb-18384-2020-about-electric-vehicles-safety-requirements/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Busch, J. Revision of GB 38031-2020: Safety Requirements for Power Batteries for Electric Vehicles. MPR China Certification. 2024. Available online: https://www.china-certification.com/en/revision-of-gb-38031-2020-safety-requirements-for-power-batteries-for-electric-vehicles/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Washington State Legislature, State of Washington. An Act Relating to Providing for Responsible Environmental Management of Batteries, Senate Bill 5144. 2023. Available online: https://lawfilesext.leg.wa.gov/biennium/2023-24/Pdf/Bill%20Reports/Senate/5144%20SBR%20WM%20TA%2023.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Illinois. Electronics-Lithium Batteries, SB3206. 2024. Available online: https://www.ilga.gov/default.asp (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- The European Parliament and The Council of The European Union. Concerning Batteries and Waste Batteries, Amending Directive 2008/98/EC and Regulation (EU) 2019/1020 and Repealing Directive 2006/66/EC. Off. J. Eur. Union 2023. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2023/1542/oj/eng (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Popova, A. EV Battery Regulations Around the World: What You Need to Know. MINESPIDER. 2022. Available online: https://www.minespider.com/blog/ev-battery-regulations-around-the-world-what-you-need-to-know (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Australian Government, Department of Industry Science and Resources. Priority 4: Sustainability, ESG and Circular Economy. National Battery Strategy. Available online: https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/national-battery-strategy/priority-4-sustainability-esg-and-circular-economy#:~:text=The%20National%20Waste%20Policy%20Action%20Plan%20outlines%20how,batteries%20and%20e-waste%20materials%20in%20landfill%20by%202024 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. Transportation of Dangerous Goods (TDG)—Overview (Road). Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. 2024. Available online: https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/legisl/tdg/tdg_overview.html (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Ministry of Justice, Government of Canada. Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act. Justice Laws Website. 2024. Available online: https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/T-19.01.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Environment Agency. Waste Batteries: Producer Responsibility. Business and the Environment. Available online: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/waste-batteries-producer-responsibility#vehicle-and-automotive-battery-producer-register (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Mobility Foresight. Mexico EV Battery Recycling Market. 2024. Available online: https://mobilityforesights.com/product/mexico-ev-battery-recycling-market/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Maine. An Act to Transition State and Local Motor Vehicle Fleets to 100 Percent Zero-Emission Vehicles, S.P. 456.0. 2021. Available online: https://legislature.maine.gov/legis/bills/display_ps.asp?LD=1579&snum=130 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- The European Union. Batteries: Ensuring That Batteries Placed on the EU Market Are Sustainable and Circular Throughout Their Whole Life Cycle. An official EU website. Available online: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/waste-and-recycling/batteries_en (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- South Korean Ministry of Environment. Act on Resource Circulation of Electrical and Electronic Equipment and Vehicles (EEEV Act). 2019. Available online: https://www.iea.org/policies/16960-act-on-resource-circulation-of-electrical-and-electronic-equipment-and-vehicles-eeev-act (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Australian Battery Stewardship Council. B-Cycle Positive Charge. 2023. Available online: https://bcycle.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/B-cycle-Positive-Charge-Report-20231207.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of New Jersey. Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Battery Management Act, Bill S3723 ScaAaSa (3R). 2024. Available online: https://www.njleg.state.nj.us/bill-search/2022/S3723 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Garden, L. New Jersey Has Made It Illegal to Discard EV Batteries in Landfills. TRELLIS. 2024. Available online: https://trellis.net/article/new-jersey-has-made-it-illegal-discard-ev-batteries-landfills (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Gesetz Über Das Inverkehrbringen. Die Rücknahme Und Die Umweltverträgliche Entsorgung von Batterien Und Akkumulatoren (Batteriegesetz-BattG). Available online: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Bestämmelser, Ö. Första Avdelningen. Available online: https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/swe50970.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of California, California Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Advisory Group Act. Assembly Bill 2832, (California State Legislature, 2018). Available online: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?sectionNum=42450.5&lawCode=PRC (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- The National. How Norway Is Turning Used Car Batteries into Black Gold. Business Technology. 2023. Available online: https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/technology/2023/07/06/how-norway-is-turning-used-car-batteries-into-black-gold/#:~:text=But%20this%20black%20gold%20%E2%80%93%20a,%2C%20cobalt%2C%20lithium%20and%20graphite (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Ministry of the Environment. Translation from Finnish Legally Binding Only in Finnish and Swedish. Available online: https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/2011/en20110646_20220494.pdf., (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Paristokierratys. Producer Responsibility in Legislation. Available online: https://www.paristokierratys.fi/en/for-producers/producer-responsibility-in-legislation/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Shoshan, A.; Gervasi, E.; Kes, J.; Plaisier, F.; Wagemaker, M. Circular Batteries Charging the Future. Colophon. Available online: https://english.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2023-11/HCH-Circular-Batteries-Charging-the-Future-Brochure.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- The European Commission. Delivering the European Green Deal. Legal documents on Delivering the European Green Deal. 2023. Available online: https://commission.europa.eu/publications/legal-documents-delivering-european-green-deal_en (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of California. Vehicle Traction Batteries, Senate Bill 615. California Legislature. 2024. Available online: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=202320240SB615 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Farmer, A.; Watkins, E. Managing Waste Batteries from Electric Vehicles the Case of the European Union and Japan. 2023. Available online: https://ieep.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Managing-waste-batteries-from-EVs-JP-and-EU-May-2023.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- National Research Council Canada. Advanced Clean Energy Program: Battery Energy Storage. Research and Collaboration Program. 2023. Available online: https://nrc.canada.ca/en/research-development/research-collaboration/programs/advanced-clean-energy-program-battery-energy-storage (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Guthire, S. What Happens to Old Electric Car Batteries? DRIVE. 2024. Available online: https://www.drive.com.au/caradvice/what-happens-to-old-electric-car-batteries/#comments (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of New Jersey. Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Battery Management Act, Bill A5365 AcaAa (2R). 2024. Available online: https://www.njleg.state.nj.us/bill-search/2022/A5365 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of New Mexico. Trade Practices and Regulations Article 30—Sale of Recycled Metals. Battery Policies and Incentives. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?jurisdiction=NM (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Maine, Maine Economic Development and Energy Programs. Battery Policies and Incentives. 2021. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=120 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Minnesota, Minnesota Economic Development and Energy Programs. Batteries Policies and Incentives. 2021. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=117 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of New Mexico, New Mexico Economic Development and Energy Programs. Battery Policies and Incentives. 2021. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=89 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of North Carolina. North Carolina Economic Development and Energy Programs. Battery Policies and Incentives. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=84 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Wisconsin, Wisconsin Public Service Commission’s Office of Energy Innovation (OEI). Renewable Energy and Energy Storage Grant Program. Battery Policies and Incentives. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=177 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Brodie, S. The China Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) Market. New Energy for A New Era. Cushman and Wakefield. 2024. Available online: https://www.cushmanwakefield.com/en/greater-china/insights/china-battery-energy-storage-system-report-2024 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Maine. Battery Storage System Decommissioning Plan Requirements. Battery Policies and Incentives, United States of America. 2024. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=304 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Battery Stewardship Council Australia. Electric Vehicle Battery Stewardship Discussion Paper under Waste Reduction and Recycling Act 2020. 2023. Available online: https://bcycle.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/BSC_FCAI_MTAA-EVB-Stewardship-Discussion-Paper-20230402.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- LaMotte, R.; Clare, J. California Passes Two New Laws to Overhaul State’s Battery Extended Producer Responsibility Program and Broadly Expand State’s E-Waste Program. Beveridge & Diamond. 2022. Available online: https://www.bdlaw.com/publications/california-passes-two-new-laws-to-overhaul-states-battery-extended-producer-responsibility-program-and-broadly-expand-states-e-waste-program/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of California, California State Legislature. Responsible Battery Recycling Act of 2022, AB 2440. 2022. Available online: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=202120220AB2440 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of New Hampshire. Establishing a Committee to Study Extended Producer Responsibility, House Bill 253. 2023. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=289 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- The State Council, Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. English.Gov.Cn. 2024. Available online: https://english.www.gov.cn/state_council/2014/08/23/content_281474983035940.htm (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Gorjala, M.; More, J.R. New Jersey Enacts Extended Producer Responsibility Law for Electric Vehicle Batteries. Environmental Update. 2024. Available online: https://natlawreview.com/article/new-jersey-enacts-extended-producer-responsibility-law-electric-vehicle-batteries (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Gorjala, M.; More, J.R. New Jersey Enacts Extended Producer Responsibility Law for Electric Vehicle Batteries. ArentFox Schiff. 2024. Available online: https://www.afslaw.com/perspectives/environmental-law-advisor/new-jersey-enacts-extended-producer-responsibility-law (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Wilkins, D.; Kuna, J. State Policymakers and EV Battery Recycling. 2023. Available online: https://www.isri.org/docs/default-source/state-program/summit-fact-sheet_policymakers.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Brazilian NR. Brazilian Environmental Legislation. Brazilian National Policy on Solid Waste. 2010. Available online: https://braziliannr.com/brazilian-environmental-legislation/law-no-12305-brazilian-national-policy-solid-waste/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of California, California State Legislature. Vehicle Code: Infractions. 2023. Available online: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=202320240AB1125 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Stone, M. EU’s Bold Move: Revolutionizing EV Battery Recycling. Grist. 2023. Available online: https://ethicalhour.com/environment-sustainability/eus-bold-move-revolutionizing-ev-battery-recycling/#:~:text=The%20EU%20is%20now%20following,back%20all%20batteries%20for%20rec (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Virginia. Imposition of Tax on Privilege of Severing Other Natural Resources. Available online: https://casetext.com/statute/west-virginia-code/chapter-11-taxation/article-13a-severance-and-business-privilege-tax-act/section-11-13a-3c-imposition-of-tax-on-privilege-of-severing-other-natural-resources (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Boxerman, S.B.; Langan, D.U.S. EPA Memo Offers Direction on Lithium Battery Recycling—Essential to the Future Supply Chain for Battery Electric Vehicles. SIDLEY. 2023. Available online: https://environmentalenergybrief.sidley.com/2023/08/16/u-s-epa-memo-offers-direction-on-lithium-battery-recycling-essential-to-the-future-supply-chain-for-electric-vehicle-batteries/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- UL Solutions. EV Battery Regulatory Compliance Testing. UL Solutions.com. Available online: https://www.ul.com/services/ev-battery-testing-compliance-regulatory-requirements-and-standards (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- European Commission Website. European Platform on LCA | EPLCA. Available online: https://eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Hill, N.; Raugei, M.; Pons, A.; Vasileiadis, N.; Ong, H.; Casullo, L. Environmental Challenges Through the Life Cycle of Battery Electric Vehicles. 2024. Available online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2023/733112/IPOL_STU(2023)733112_EN.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- EPA. Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles. 24 April 2013. Available online: https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-04/documents/lithium_batteries_ch1.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Directorate-General for Climate Action. 5 Things You Should Know About Electric Cars. European Commission. 2024. Available online: https://climate.ec.europa.eu/news-your-voice/news/5-things-you-should-know-about-electric-cars-2024-05-14_en (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Balzer, M. The Ultimate Guide to EV Incentives in Germany. Evolve Stories to Drive Change by Wall Box. 2020. Available online: https://wallbox.com/en_nz/ev-incentives-in-germany (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Office for Zero Emission Vehicles. Electric Vehicle Charge Point and Infrastructure Grant Guidance for Installers. gov.uk. 2024. Available online: https://www.gov.uk/guidance/electric-vehicle-chargepoint-and-infrastucture-grant-guidance-for-installers (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Official Legal Publisher of State Of New Mexico. Mineral Resource Research and Development. Battery Policies and Incentives. 1991. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=151 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Williams, A. State of Nevada: Sustainable Materials Management Plan Aligning Solid Waste, Hazardous Waste, and Other Materials Management Processes with Sustainable Practices Expansion of and Revision to the 2017 State Solid Waste Management Plan. 2022. Available online: https://innovation.luskin.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Lithium-Extraction-Policy-in-the-Salton-Sea-and-Thacker-Pass.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Goed Nevada Governor’s Office of Economic Development. Business incentives. 2024. Available online: https://goed.nv.gov/incentives/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Nevada. Clean Energy Study, Nevada Revised Statutes 218E. Battery Policies and Incentives. 2019. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=145 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Baskaran, G.; Yu, F. Leveraging Argentina’s Mineral Resources for Economic Growth. CSIS | Energy Security and Climate Change Program. 2024. Available online: https://www.csis.org/analysis/leveraging-argentinas-mineral-resources-economic-growth (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Law No 928: Law of the National Strategic Public Company for Bolivian Lithium Deposits—YLB. lea50. 2022. Available online: https://www.iea.org/policies/16654-law-no-928-law-of-the-national-strategic-public-company-for-bolivian-lithium-deposits-ylb, (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Único, A.I. Ley N° 928 Ley de 27 de Abril de 2017 evo Morales Ayma Presidente Constitucional del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia por Cuanto. La Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional, Ha Sancionado la Siguiente Ley: La Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional, Decreta: Ley de la Empresa Pública Nacional Estratégica de Yacimientos de Litio Bolivianos-Ylb. 2017. Available online: https://mineria.gob.bo/juridica/20170427-13-12-42.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Sanchez, W.A. China’s Win-Win in Zimbabwe: Lithium for Regime Legitimacy. Geopolitical Monitor. 2023. Available online: https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/chinas-win-win-in-zimbabwe-lithium-for-regime-legitimacy/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Li, H.; Zhu, T.; Chen, X.; Liu, H.; He, G. Improving China’s Global Lithium Resource Development Capacity. Front. Environ. Sci. 2022, 10, 938534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Diputados, C.; Congreso De, D.H.; Unión, L.A.; Reforma, Ú. Reglamento de la Ley General Para la Prevención y Gestión Integral de Los Residuos. 2014. Available online: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/regley/Reg_LGPGIR_311014.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Lema, K. Litio 2040: Sustainably Developing Mexico’s Lithium from Ground to Grid. Ecological Security Fellowship Briefer Series. 2024. Available online: https://councilonstrategicrisks.org/2024/06/11/litio-2040-sustainably-developing-mexicos-lithium-from-ground-to-grid/#:~:text=Since%20nationalizing%20lithium%20resources%20in,policymakers%20should%20hope%20to%20emulate. (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Research and Statistics Section CDTFA. California Lithium Extraction Tax Study, Senate Bill 125, Statutes of 2022. 2023. Available online: https://www.cdtfa.ca.gov/taxes-and-fees/LithiumTaxStudy.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Nevada. Economic Development Tax Incentives. Battery Incentive and Policies. 2021. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/?show=result&id=144 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Ministerio de Minería. Decree Law 2886. Reserve Lithium in Favour of the State. lea50. 2022. Available online: https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/navegar?idNorma=7029&idVersion=1979-11-14&idParte= (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Governor Gavin Newsom. New Report Highlights the Promise of Lithium Valley. ca.gov.com. 2023. Available online: https://www.gov.ca.gov/2023/11/28/new-report-highlights-the-promise-of-lithium-valley/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- State of Texas, Texas Legislature. Relating to the Use of Certain Fees Deposited to the Hazardous and Solid Waste Remediation Fee Account for Reimbursement of Environmental Remediation at Certain Former Battery Recycling Facility Sites, HB 2708. 2021. Available online: https://legiscan.com/TX/text/HB2708/id/2405372 (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Vehicle Technologies Office. US Federal Policies, Battery Policies and Incentives Search. energy.gov. Available online: https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/battery-policies-and-incentives-search#/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs. European Battery Alliance. 2024. Available online: https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/industry/industrial-alliances/european-battery-alliance_en (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- NV Energy. Electric Vehicle Programs: Clean Energy Future. Power Shift by NV Energy. 2023. Available online: https://www.nvenergy.com/cleanenergy/electric-vehicles (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Nevada Battery Coalition. Available online: https://nevadabatterycoalition.com/our-members/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- President of Mexico Nationalizes Lithium. Green Car Congress. 2023. Available online: https://www.greencarcongress.com/2023/02/20230220-mexico.html (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- BioAge Group, LLC. Mexico Forms State-Run Company to Mine Lithium: Litio Para. Green Car Congress. 2022. Available online: https://www.greencarcongress.com/2022/08/20220826-litiomx.html (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Occupational Knowledge International. Exporting Hazards: U.S. Shipments of Used Lead Batteries to Mexico Take Advantage of Lax environmental and Worker Health Regulations. 2011. Available online: https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/ToxicWaste/RightToInformation/OccupationalKnowledgeInternational2.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Martine, J.A.T.; Vázquez, K. Electric Vehicle Regulation and Law in Mexico. CMS. 2018. Available online: https://cms.law/en/int/expert-guides/cms-expert-guide-to-electric-vehicles/mexico (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Hernández, V.L.; Hilbert, I.; Castillero, L.G.; Manhart, A.; García, D.; Nkongdem, B.; Dumitrescu, R.; Sucre, C.; Herrera, C.F. Recycling and Reuse of Lithium Batteries in Latin America and the Caribbean Analytical Review of Global and Regional Practices. 2024. Available online: https://publications.iadb.org/en/recycling-and-reuse-lithium-batteries-latin-america-and-caribbean-analytical-review-global-and (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Ministry of Justice Canada. Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (S.C. 1999, c. 33). Justice Laws Website. Available online: https://lois-laws.justice.gc.ca/PDF/C-15.31.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Ministry of Justice Canada. Cross-Border Movement of Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Recyclable Material Regulations (SOR/2021-25). Justice Laws Website. 2024. Available online: https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/SOR-2021-25.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Canadian Region. Call2Recycle: Leading the Charge for Recycling. Available online: https://www.call2recycle.ca/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- McSheffrey, E. New report Urges B.C. to Become the Region’s Leader in Recycling Electric Vehicle Batteries. Global News, 7 December 2021. Available online: https://globalnews.ca/news/8432601/bc-electric-vehicle-battery-recycling/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Basen, N. Can Ontario Boost EV Battery Recycling Before It’s Too Late? Tvotoday. 2021. Available online: https://www.tvo.org/article/can-ontario-boost-ev-battery-recycling-before-its-too-late (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Call2Recycle Canadian Region. Provincial Recycling Regulations. Call2Recycle—Leading the Charge for Recycling. Available online: https://www.call2recycle.ca/provincial-recycling-regulations/ (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Mathieu, L. France’s Eco-Bonus Shows How We Can Promote Cleaner Made-in-Europe EVs. T&E, 14 December 2023. Available online: https://www.transportenvironment.org/articles/frances-eco-bonus-shows-how-we-can-promote-cleaner-made-in-europe-evs (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Rizos, V.; Urban, P. Implementing the EU Digital Battery Passport. 2024. Available online: https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/knowledge/implementing-eu-digital-battery-passport-opportunities-and-challenges-battery-circularity (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- PWC. Update on Extended Producer Responsibility Changes in the UK. Available online: https://www.pwc.co.uk/services/legal/insights/update-on-extended-producer-responsibility-changes-in-uk.html. (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Wei, L.; Wang, C.; Li, Y. Governance strategies for end-of-life electric vehicle battery recycling in China: A tripartite evolutionary game analysis. Front. Environ. Sci. 2022, 10, 1071688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- United Nations University Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and of Resources (UNU-FLORES). NABATE Transfer Workshop on the Sustainable Management of End-of-Life Batteries in South Korea. Available online: https://unu.edu/flores/workshop/nabate-transfer-workshop-sustainable-management-end-life-batteries-south-korea (accessed on 13 November 2024).
- Sung, S.-H. Korea to Keep Track of EV Battery Life Cycles for Recycling. Batteries. 10 July 2024. Available online: https://www.kedglobal.com/batteries/newsView/ked202407100017 (accessed on 13 November 2024).
- Choi, Y.; Rhee, S.-W. Current status and perspectives on recycling of end-of-life batteries of electric vehicles in Korea (Republic of). Waste Manag. 2021, 125, 91–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cui, Y.; Teah, H.Y.; Dou, Y.; Kanematsu, Y.; Yamaki, A.; Yonetsuka, T.; Chang, I.-S.; Wu, J.; Kikuchi, Y. Design and assessment of sustainable spent automobile lithium-ion battery industries in Japan: A system dynamic business model approach. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 273, 122898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, M.; Ma, X.; Chen, B.; Arsenault, R.; Karlson, P.; Simon, N.; Wang, Y. Recycling end-of-life electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries. Nat. Sustain. 2019, 2, 195–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krabberød, F.; Ho, A. End of Life Strategies for Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries. HSSMI. Available online: https://autorecyclingworld.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/EoL-Strategies-for-EV-LIBs-2020-HSSMI.pdf (accessed on 26 August 2024).
- Indeed Innovation. Unpacking EPR: A Look at US and EU Packaging Laws. The Mensch. Available online: https://www.indeed-innovation.com/the-mensch/unpacking-epr-a-look-at-us-and-eu-packaging-laws/ (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- EUROPEN. Extended Producer Responsibility. EUROPEN: The European Organization for Packaging and the Environment. Available online: https://www.europen-packaging.eu/policy-area/extended-producer-responsibility/ (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Hunter Jeffry, L.; Shiigi Kaela Perkins Coie, L.L.P. Extended Producer Responsibility Packaging Laws in the United States. Perkins Coie. Available online: https://perkinscoie.com/insights/update/extended-producer-responsibility-packaging-laws-united-states (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Adam, H.; Jacob, M.-R.; Tax Foundation. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). Tax Foundation. Available online: https://taxfoundation.org/research/all/state/extended-producer-responsibility-epr/ (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Source Intelligence. Packaging EPR Laws in the US. Source Intelligence Blog. Available online: https://blog.sourceintelligence.com/packaging-epr-laws-in-the-us (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Quinn, M. New Jersey Governor Signs EPR Law for Electric Vehicle Batteries. Waste Dive. Available online: https://www.wastedive.com/news/electric-vehicle-battery-epr-law-new-jersey-murphy/704220/ (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Haskins, E.; Wooten, N.E. Grappling with Safe Battery Handling and End-of-Life Concerns in the EV Revolution. Baker Donelson, 18 October 2024. Available online: https://www.bakerdonelson.com/grappling-with-safe-battery-handling-and-end-of-life-concerns-in-the-ev-revolution (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- My Compliance. Full EPR Service in the USA. My Compliance. Available online: https://www.my-compliance.eu/news/usa-full-epr-service-in-the-usa/ (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Tankou, A.; Hall, D. Will the U.S. EV Battery Recycling Industry be Ready for Millions of End-of-Life Batteries? The International Council on Clean Transportation Blog, 29 September 2023. Available online: https://theicct.org/us-ev-battery-recycling-end-of-life-batteries-sept23/ (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Alliance for Automotive Innovation. Lithium-Ion EV Battery Recycling Policy Framework. Alliance for Automotive Innovation. Available online: https://www.autosinnovate.org/about/advocacy/Lithium-Ion%20EV%20Battery%20Recycling%20Policy%20Framework.pdf (accessed on 20 November 2024).
- Jannesar Niri, A.; Poelzer, G.A.; Zhang, S.E.; Rosenkranz, J.; Pettersson, M.; Ghorbani, Y. Sustainability Challenges Throughout the Electric Vehicle Battery Value Chain. 2024. Available online: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032123010341#:~:text=Besides%2C%20another%20initiative%20is%20the,data%20documentation)%20%5B95%5D (accessed on 26 August 2024).
Country | EV Sales Percentage |
---|---|
Norway | 13.8 |
Germany | 13.6 |
Finland | 10.3 |
United Kingdom | 11.6 |
Belgium | 10.2 |
Spain | 2.8 |
Portugal | 3.1 |
Austria | 6.4 |
Greece | 2.7 |
Other European. Nations | 4.8 |
United States | 7.8 |
China | 33.3 |
Israel | 8.2 |
Australia | 3.5 |
South Korea | 2.1 |
Japan | 3.3 |
Manufacturer | Model | Battery Warranty | Estimated Battery Lifespan | Starting Price (USD) | Battery Replacement Cost (USD) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tesla | Model S | 8 years/150,000 miles | 10–20 years | USD 68,490 | USD 12,000–USD 20,000 |
Tesla | Model 3 | 8 years/120,000 miles | 10–20 years | USD 40,380 | USD 10,000–USD 15,000 |
Tesla | Model X | 8 years/150,000 miles | 10–20 years | USD 79,990 | USD 12,000–USD 20,000 |
Tesla | Model Y | 8 years/120,000 miles | 10–20 years | USD 47,490 | USD 10,000–USD 18,000 |
Volkswagen | ID.4 | 8 years/100,000 miles | 8–12 years | USD 46,385 | USD 8000–USD 15,000 |
Kia | EV6 | 10 years/100,000 miles | 8–12 years | USD 48,700 | USD 7000–USD 13,000 |
Hyundai | IONIQ 5 | 10 years/100,000 miles | 8–12 years | USD 41,450 | USD 7500–USD 13,500 |
Ford | Mustang Mach-E | 8 years/100,000 miles | 8–12 years | USD 39,995 | USD 11,000–USD 18,000 |
General Motors | Chevrolet Bolt EV | 8 years/100,000 miles | 8–12 years | USD 30,670 | USD 9000–USD 16,000 |
General Motors | Chevrolet Silverado EV, 2024 Silverado 1500 | 8 years/100,000 miles | 8–12 years | USD 44,795 | USD 10,000–USD 17,000 |
Rivian | R1T | 8 years/175,000 miles | Data not yet available | USD 71,700 | USD 15,000–USD 22,000 |
Lucid Motors | Air | 8 years/100,000 miles | Data not yet available | USD 71,400 | USD 12,000–USD 24,000 |
Aspect | Recycling | Reuse | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Advantages | Disadvantages | Advantages | Disadvantages | |
Resource Recovery | Efficient recovery of valuable materials like cobalt, lithium, and nickel. | Limited by current technologies in extracting all valuable materials efficiently. | Limited recovery of materials, focuses on extending battery’s existing lifecycle. | Eventually, the batteries will still need to be recycled. |
Environmental Impact | Reduces the need for raw material extraction, lessening environmental footprint. | Energy-intensive processes and potential for harmful emissions. | Reduces waste and the need for new battery production, lowering carbon footprint. | If not managed properly, it can lead to inefficient use and disposal challenges. |
Economic Viability | Creates a supply chain for critical battery materials, potentially reducing costs. | High initial investment in technology and infrastructure. | Can be more cost-effective in the short term by extending battery life. | Limited market for repurposed batteries and potential costs in reconditioning. |
Energy Efficiency | Potentially more energy-efficient in the long run as technologies improve. | Current recycling processes can be less energy efficient. | Reuse does not require the energy-intensive process of recycling. | The efficiency of repurposed batteries can decrease over time, requiring more energy. |
Safety and Reliability | End products are raw materials that can be used to make new, reliable batteries. | Processes must be carefully managed to prevent environmental contamination. | Repurposed batteries may have less predictable performance and lifespan. | Potential safety risks if repurposed batteries are not properly evaluated. |
Scalability | Scalable as battery use increases and recycling technologies improve. | Requires a steady and sufficient supply of spent batteries to be economically viable. | Limited by the availability of suitable batteries for repurposing. | May not be as scalable due to varying conditions of spent batteries. |
Technological Development | Drives innovation in recycling technologies and materials science. | Dependent on advancements in technology for greater efficiency and recovery. | Encourages innovation in extending the life and use of lithium-ion batteries. | Limited by the current state of battery technology and degradation over time. |
Category | Battery Issues | States Addressing It | Countries Addressing It |
---|---|---|---|
Safe disposal/Transportation | Addressing the fire risk in Solid Waste and Materials Facilities in Recycling Streams | CA [23], IL [24] | China [25,26] |
Preventing mixing with solid waste | WA [27], IL [28] | EU [29], Japan [30], Australia [31], Canada [32,33], UK [34], Mexico [35] | |
Preventing hazardous gas emissions | ME [36] | EU [37], South Korea [38], Australia [39] | |
Cannot be disposed of as solid waste | NJ [40,41] | Germany [42], Sweden [43] | |
Preventing toxic materials release | CA [44] | Norway [45], Finland [46,47], The Netherlands [48] | |
End of life management | Removing hazardous waste classification | CA [44] | EU [49] |
Recycling/reuse requirements | CA [50], NJ [40] | Sweden [51], Germany [29,51], France [29,51], Canada [52], Australia [53], Mexico [35] | |
Perform needs assessment to determine availability of recyclers/infrastructure | NJ [54] | Norway [45], The Netherlands [48] | |
Submit report with final policy recommendations for collection/management | WA [27], NJ [54], CA [44], IL [28] | EU [29,37] | |
Sale of recycled materials | NM [55], NJ [54] | South Korea [30] | |
Development/incentives/regulation- Battery energy storage systems (BESS) | ME [56], MN [57], NM [58], NC [59], WI [60] | China [61] | |
Decommissioning of certain Battery energy storage systems (BESS) | ME [62] | Australia [63] | |
Responsibility and ownership outlining accountable stakeholders at each stage of battery’s life cycle | Extended producer/Manufacturer Responsibility/Producer take-back | NJ [54], IL [28], CA [64,65], MN [57], NH [66], WA [27] | Sweden [43], EU [29] |
Producers must create a battery management plan outlining how it will collect and manage its used batteries | NJ [54], IL [28] | China [67], EU [30] | |
Shared Responsibility split among manufacturers, importers, distributors, retailers, customers, waste management | CA [64], NJ [68,69], WA [70] | Brazil [71] | |
Retailers take back | NJ [54], CA [72], WA [27] | EU [73] | |
Recycling entities must establish battery tracking system | NJ [54], WA [27], CA [44] | EU [29] | |
Government agency responsibility | CA [44] | China [67] | |
Core exchange and vehicle backstop | CA [44] | ||
Access to the Battery Information | Universal Diagnostic System | CA [44,74] | EU [29] |
Digital Identifier | CA [44,74] | EU [29] | |
Physical Labeling/Notices | CA [44,74], NJ [54] | ||
Ensuring Compliance | Community Board Compliance with Notice and Annual Inspection Requirements | US [75], Canada [76], Germany [76] | |
Assessment and Reporting | Request for life cycle analysis | CA [44,74] | EU [77,78], US [79] |
Comprehensive study for the best EOL management of clean energy products | CA [44,74], NJ [54] | South Korea [76], EU [77,78] | |
Consumer/Stakeholder Education | Consumer/Stakeholder Education | IL [28], NJ [54], CA [65], WA [27] | EU [29,80] |
Providing educational materials to consumers | NJ [54], IL [28], CA [65], WA [27] | Germany [81], UK [82] | |
Public Notice Requirements | |||
Material Extraction | Incentive for establishment of lithium mining operations, identifying extraction areas, and training workers | NM [55,58,83], NV [84,85,86] | Argentina [87], Bolivia [88,89], China [90,91], Mexico [92,93] |
Lithium Extraction Excise Tax | CA [94], WV [74], NV [95] | Chile [88,96], and Bolivia [88,89] | |
Sustainability and Ethics | Responsible sourcing of battery materials (responsible and conflict-free sources) | CA [97], NV [84,95] | Argentina [87], Chile [96], Bolivia [88] and EU [29] |
Environmental remediation reimbursement at sites of former battery recycling facilities | TX [98] | ||
Research and Development | Innovation in battery technology and materials to increase efficiency/sustainability | US [99] | US [99], EU [100] |
Metal | Material Recovery Rates | Recycled Contents by 2031 | Recycled Contents by 2036 |
---|---|---|---|
Lithium | 50% | 6% | 12% |
Nickel | 90% | 6% | 15% |
Cobalt | 90% | 16% | 26% |
Copper | 90% | 6% | 12% |
Category | European Union | New Jersey |
---|---|---|
Regulatory Framework | The European Union has a thorough and consistent regulatory framework that applies to all member states according to the EU Battery Regulation [29] and the Battery Directive. | New Jersey follows a state-specific framework within the broader federal guidelines under the Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Battery Management Act. [40,54] |
Producer Responsibility | Adopt EPR programs that mandate manufacturers handle batteries that have reached the end of their useful lives [54]. | Adopt EPR programs that mandate manufacturers handle batteries that have reached the end of their useful lives [54]. |
Recycling Infrastructure | European Union guarantees that member states’ recycling infrastructure is developed consistently [29]. | The State of New Jersey focuses on state-specific infrastructure development, supported by federal norms [40,54]. |
Consumer Awareness | Promote public awareness initiatives and disseminate information on appropriate recycling and disposal practices [29,54] | Promote public awareness initiatives and disseminate information on appropriate recycling and disposal practices [29,54] |
Financial Incentives | The European Union provides a substantial amount of financing for infrastructure development, innovation, and research. A EUR 2.9 billion assistance package for a pan-European research and innovation project along the full battery value chain was authorized by the European Commission in early 2021. The project specifically relates to raw and advanced materials, battery cells and systems, recycling, and sustainability [100] | The State of New Jersey provides incentives to consumers for returning batteries and grants and subsidies to increase recycling capacity [99]. |
Information and Transparency | The European Union has proposed a battery passport. The EU’s battery passport, mandatory from 2027, is a digital system for EV and large industrial batteries. It uses QR codes to track each battery’s lifecycle, composition, and performance. This initiative aims to improve sustainability, recycling, and transparency in the battery industry. | EV battery labels in New Jersey should include the battery’s chemical composition, a recycling statement, and the brand name. The label must be visible and use contrasting colors. Manufacturers must also provide information on battery health, warranty terms, and safety procedures, though this does not necessarily need to be on the label itself. And recycling companies believe that battery passports would produce barriers to effective recycling and supply chain difficulties; battery passports mandate that battery producers create environmentally friendly and socially conscious batteries. To accomplish this shared goal, however, many things must first be in place, such as compatible technologies for data collection, processing, and sharing and a trained staff to document the data [134]. |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Meegoda, J.N.; Watts, D.; Patil, U. Regulations and Policies on the Management of the End of the Life of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electrical Vehicles. Energies 2025, 18, 604. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030604
Meegoda JN, Watts D, Patil U. Regulations and Policies on the Management of the End of the Life of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electrical Vehicles. Energies. 2025; 18(3):604. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030604
Chicago/Turabian StyleMeegoda, Jay N., Daniel Watts, and Udaysinh Patil. 2025. "Regulations and Policies on the Management of the End of the Life of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electrical Vehicles" Energies 18, no. 3: 604. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030604
APA StyleMeegoda, J. N., Watts, D., & Patil, U. (2025). Regulations and Policies on the Management of the End of the Life of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electrical Vehicles. Energies, 18(3), 604. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030604