Search Results (387)

Mycotoxin contamination remains a persistent threat to food safety in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and neighboring countries, driven by conducive tropical agroecological conditions, inadequate post-harvest practices, and limited regulatory governance. This critical narrative review (2009–2024) synthesizes the occurrence data for major staple foods (maize, peanuts, cassava, sorghum, millet, and beans) and dairy products compiled from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, MDPI and institutional sources. It examines the co-occurrence patterns, exposure pathways, and analytical and regulatory gaps. Warm, humid lowland environments favor Aspergillus and aflatoxins, whereas cooler, humid highland zones promote Fusarium, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol. Across commodities, contamination intensifies along food value chains through inadequate drying, non-hermetic storage, insect damage, and prolonged handling, with processed products generally exhibiting the highest levels of mycotoxins. Regulated mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and zearalenone, frequently exceed European Union (EU), East African Community (EAC), and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) limits in staple foods. Their co-occurrence is widespread, including emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin and enniatins, particularly in maize- and peanut-based products, raising concerns about potential additive or synergistic effects. Aflatoxin M1 in milk highlights plant–feed–animal–human transfer within a One Health framework. Despite increasing evidence, the available data remain fragmented and heterogeneous; rapid tests dominate, while few studies employ multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods. Cross-border trade between countries, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Angola, facilitates the circulation of contaminated commodities in the absence of harmonized standards and risk-based controls. Priorities include harmonized regional surveillance, biomarker-based co-exposure assessment, cost-effectiveness evaluation of mitigation strategies, and regulatory alignment at borders. Coordinated, multisectoral action is essential to reduce chronic dietary exposure and improve food safety across the region. Full article

A three-year experiment was conducted over the years 2020–2022 to determine the spectrum of microscopic fungi colonizing the grain of two fungicide-treated cultivars of spring barley and the profiles of mycotoxins identified in grain. In comparison with the unprotected control, fungicide treatment significantly increased grain yield by an average of approximately 10% in cv. Atrika and approximately 20% in cv. Vermont. The most abundantly isolated species were Alternaria alternata and Bipolaris sorokiniana. Fungi of the genus Fusarium were also widely represented, accounting for 7% to 27% of all isolates, depending on the year. Each year, 45 secondary fungal metabolites produced mainly by Fusarium and Alternaria species were identified. Fungicide protection did not reduce the overall concentration of Fusarium toxins and even caused a slight increase, while contributing to a decrease in the levels of nivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and deoxynivalenol. Concurrently, the concentrations of group A trichothecenes and moniliformin increased. The grain of spring barley cv. Vermont contained higher levels of the major Fusarium toxins than the grain of cv. Atrika. Non-parametric Friedman ANOVA revealed significant differences between years for eight mycotoxin concentrations. These results confirm the complex effects of chemical protection on the composition of grain microflora and mycotoxin profiles, indicating the need for further research into interactions between cultivars, environmental conditions, and integrated plant protection strategies in the production of food and feed cereals to improve food safety. Full article

Trichothecene mycotoxins, especially T-2 toxin, represent a significant threat to food safety and public health. Although the enzymatic degradation of deoxynivalenol has been extensively investigated, there are few reports of enzymes capable of efficiently degrading T-2 toxin. This study identified that the aldo-keto reductase AKR13B3 from Devosia A6-243 exhibits 3-keto-DON-degrading and a little T-2 toxin-degrading activity. To address this limitation, a rational design strategy targeting the substrate-binding pocket was employed to enhance its activity. Utilizing site-directed and combinatorial mutagenesis, a double mutant R134F/D217A was successfully screened. R134F/D217A retains catalytic activity towards 3-keto-DON while significantly enhancing its catalytic capacity for T-2. Specifically, the R134F/D217A variant exhibited a 2.88-fold increase in catalytic activity and a 3.15-fold enhancement in catalytic efficiency (k_cat/K_m) relative to the wild type enzyme. Notably, a substantial improvement in thermal stability was also observed. After incubation at 55 °C, the residual activity of the R134F/D217A mutant was 2.63 times that of the wild type. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and three-dimensional structural modeling suggested the mechanistic basis for the enhanced performance of the R134F/D217A double mutant. Catalytic enhancement stems from a shortened nucleophilic attack distance, a positively biased electrostatic environment, combined with an enlarged pocket and reduced binding free energy. Concurrently, the increased thermal stability results from decreased flexibility and a more rigid structural architecture. This work presents the first report of AKR13B3 as an effective enzyme for T-2 toxin transformation, and its catalytic activity was significantly enhanced through rational design. Thus, a novel enzymatic strategy was proposed, and could inform future approaches to study issues related to T-2 toxin contamination. Full article

Type B trichothecenes (B-TCTs), predominant mycotoxins in wheat, threaten human health. However, their contamination profile in China, a major wheat producer, remains unclear. This study analyzed 1337 wheat samples (2022–2024) from main production areas using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and deterministic assessment to investigate B-TCTs’ watershed-scale distribution, spatiotemporal variations, associated health risks, and key climatic drivers. Results indicate that deoxynivalenol (DON) and its transformation product DON-3-glucoside (DON-3G) were the predominant contaminants, while nivalenol (NIV) was detected in specific river basins. Although overall exposure was low, elevated risks were identified in certain basins during particular years, especially for young children. DON-3G contributed 23.5% to total DON exposure. Relative humidity (rs = 0.34, p < 0.01), precipitation (rs = 0.37, p < 0.01), and its duration (rs = 0.38, p < 0.01) during the flowering-to-harvest period were identified as critical climatic drivers. The findings highlight the need to include DON-3G in food safety regulations and to develop climate-adapted control strategies. Full article

Forty heritage common wheat varieties were cultivated in four experimental fields over two consecutive years, to evaluate their susceptibility to Fusarium and Alternaria fungi and the associated mycotoxins. Marked differences in meteorological conditions between the two years (2023 and 2024) significantly influenced mycotoxin occurrence and impact. Overall, heritage varieties exhibited mycotoxin contamination comparable to those reported for modern wheat cultivars grown in nearby areas; interestingly, an opposite trend was observed among trichothecenes and Alternaria toxins. Comparing the varieties with each other, very different contamination levels for both mycotoxin groups were observed; some varieties were consistently susceptible across both years, others only in 2024, likely due to frequent precipitations. However, four varieties consistently displayed low levels of both deoxynivalenol and Alternaria toxins. Weak correlations among DON and alkylresorcinol ratios were found, showing that, considering only these heritage wheat varieties, alkylresorcinol content could not always predict the susceptibility to mycotoxin contamination. Full article

Mycotoxins can contaminate food and raw food materials and are a threat to animal and human health. T-2 toxin is the most toxic secondary metabolite mainly produced by Fusarium species among trichothecenes. T-2 toxin exposure can induce multiple toxic effects, including hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, immunotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, and reproductive toxicity. Recent studies have reported that T-2 toxin can cross the blood–brain barrier and trigger neurotoxicity. In this review, we summarized the neurotoxic effects caused by T-2 toxin exposure and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Additionally, effective neuroprotective agents, potential clinical applications, and future prospects are discussed. The current studies revealed that the molecular mechanisms of T-2 toxin-induced neurotoxicity involve oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, autophagy, ferroptosis and cell apoptosis. Several signaling pathways, including NFE2L2, NRF-2, PGC-1, p53, BTG2, AKNA, MAPK, Akt, mTOR, HMGB1, HIF-1, CREB, and NF-κB, are involved. Additionally, it was reported that several antioxidants, small inhibitors and nature products, such as daucosterol, betulinic acid, AHN 1-055 hydrochloride, dimethyl fumarate and minocycline supplementations, can partly ameliorate these harmful effects. This review provides valuable insights into the underlying mechanisms of T-2 toxin-induced neurotoxicity and novel effective detoxification strategies. Full article

Fusarium graminaerum causes Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) on wheat, reduces yield, and contaminates food and feed. It is therefore of paramount importance to control its growth or convert its harmful mycotoxins. This study aimed to find yeasts with biocontrol activity against F. graminearum, and to identify genes with potential detoxifying activities, using microbiological, molecular methods and bioinformatics. Co-cultivation tests showed that Schizosaccharomyces japonicus was able to inhibit the growth of F. graminearum. Transcriptomic analysis of the yeast cells co-cultured with F. graminearum highlighted differentially expressed genes (DEGs) encoding various enzymes, such as oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, or genes involved in transmembrane transport. Three trichothecene-3-O-acetyltransferase homologous genes, which can convert trichothecenes to less toxic forms, were also among them. A database search showed that several yeast species contained this gene, including S. japonicus, which unexpectedly had seven copies. Real-time PCR analysis and mycotoxin tolerance tests confirmed that some of these genes could be induced by deoxynivalenol (DON), and S. japonicus had stronger DON tolerance than the related S. pombe, whose genome did not contain such a gene. This study is the first to report the biocontrol efficacy of S. japonicus against F. graminearum and the identification of its potential detoxification genes, offering promising new avenues for biotechnological applications in food safety. Full article

Fusarium sporotrichioides strain M-1-1, originally deposited as Fusarium solani IFO 9955 in 1974 and later moved to NBRC, is known for producing T-2 toxin. In addition to NRRL 3299, which was used in the United States to study T-2 toxin biosynthesis, NBRC 9955 has been extensively used for trichothecene research in Japan. To facilitate and accurately document studies on trichothecene biosynthesis using NBRC 9955, its phylogenetic classification and trichothecene metabolite profiles were determined. As anticipated, NBRC 9955 was classified as F. sporotrichioides, which exhibited a more distant phylogenetic relationship to other strains within the same species. Time-course TLC analyses demonstrated the accumulation of various deacetylated trichothecenes in yeast extract-rich liquid media during the late growth stages. Conversely, an increase in 3-O-acetylation of T-2 toxin was observed at late stages when cultivated in micronutrient-poor synthetic liquid medium. Northern blot analysis revealed that Tri8 expression halted in cultures with the synthetic medium, which accounts for the growth stage-dependent 3-O-acetylation observed. On a brown rice flour solid medium, the fungal strain produced mixtures of T-2 toxin, neosolaniol, HT-2 toxin, and their 3-O-acetyl derivatives. These results highlight the risk of underestimating the levels of toxic trichothecene metabolites when using the standard contamination monitoring protocols. Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced mainly by filamentous fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium and pose a significant food safety concern. This review summarizes current literature on the occurrence of major regulated and emerging mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and selected Fusarium and Alternaria metabolites, in herbs, spices, and plant-based dietary supplements. Available data indicate that spices—particularly chilli, paprika, ginger, and various types of pepper—represent high-risk commodities and are often more heavily contaminated than dried herbs. Although reported concentrations of individual mycotoxins are frequently low to moderate, numerous studies highlight the common co-occurrence of multiple toxins within a single product, raising concerns regarding cumulative and combined toxic effects. Dietary supplements, especially those containing concentrated plant extracts such as green tea or green coffee, are also identified as potential sources of multi-mycotoxin exposure. The review outlines key analytical approaches for mycotoxin determination, emphasizing the critical role of sample preparation for chromatographic analysis in complex plant matrices. Despite increasing evidence of contamination, important knowledge gaps persist regarding emerging mycotoxins, underrepresented botanical matrices, and long-term exposure assessment, while regulatory limits remain incomplete or inconsistent. Continued monitoring and harmonized analytical and risk assessment strategies are, therefore, essential to ensure consumer safety. Full article

Mycotoxins are global contaminants of feedstuffs and feeds that are linked to animal health and performance challenges and subsequently lead to economic burden. Negative effects of mycotoxin consumption may increase as a result of multiple mycotoxin co-occurrences. To assess mycotoxin challenge in Europe, a seven-year survey (2018 to 2024) of 1867 samples of grains (barley, maize, and wheat) and 818 forages (maize silage and grass silage) was conducted to assess the simultaneous presence of 54 mycotoxins using ultra-pressure liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Results were categorized by feedstuff, harvest year, and climatic region to gain insight on mycotoxin occurrence, concentration and co-occurrence. Grains contained a mean 3.6 to 6.7 mycotoxin types per sample, while silages contained 3.1 to 6.0. Barley in the Nordic climate region had some of the highest Fusarium mycotoxin concentrations, while maize silage had consistently higher mycotoxin concentrations across all climate regions. The B trichothecenes and emerging mycotoxins had the highest rates of co-occurrence (52.4% to 74.2% of samples) in grains and maize silage. Co-occurrence data can serve as an initial framework for identifying or reasserting known environmental conditions that favor mycotoxin biosynthesis in distinct fungal taxa and for refining risk assessment of animals simultaneously exposed to multiple mycotoxins. Collectively, this survey shows that mycotoxin contamination and co-occurrence in grains and silages from Europe is expected, with differences occurring by feedstuff type and climatic region. Full article

Fusarium crown rot (FCR) is a devastating fungal disease of wheat in China that causes substantial yield losses and deterioration of grain quality. To clarify the pathogen composition and associated mycotoxin risks of FCR in Hebei Province, a comprehensive field survey was conducted during the critical growth stage from flowering to maturity (April to May) of the 2024 wheat season from 46 sites. Fungal isolates were obtained from symptomatic wheat stem bases and were identified through morphological and molecular analyses. In total, 156 Fusarium isolates were obtained, and from these isolates, 12 Fusarium species were identified based on species-specific PCR and DNA sequencing of the translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF1) loci. Of these Fusarium isolates, 118 were identified as Fusarium pseudograminearum, 16 identified as F. graminearum and the remaining isolates consisted of F. acuminatum, F. asiaticum, F. boothii, F. culmorum, F. equiseti, F. flocciferum, F. incarnatum, F. proliferatum, F. sinensis, and F. verticillioides. The results revealed that F. pseudograminearum with the 15ADON genotype was the predominant species, accounting for 75.64% of all the isolates, followed by F. graminearum. Trichothecene genotyping revealed that 91.53% of the F. pseudograminearum strains possessed the 15ADON genotype (108 isolates), while 8.47% exhibited the 3ADON genotype (10 isolates). Although differences were observed within F. pseudograminearum in MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 distributions among different sampling regions, a well-balanced mating type ratio was identified across Hebei Province. Population genetic analysis based on composite genotypes (trichothecene and mating type) revealed moderate to high genetic diversity within the F. pseudograminearum population. Recent studies on causal Fusarium species, trichothecene genotypes, and their distribution in China are compared and discussed. These findings may have implications in managing this significant fungal disease. Full article

Fusarium fungi are prolific producers of a wide array of structurally and functionally diverse secondary metabolites (SMs), ranging from harmful mycotoxins to beneficial phytohormones and medicines. Many of these compounds show significant promise for use as agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and food additives. The biosynthesis of these SMs in Fusarium fungi is strictly regulated by a complex network composed of various regulatory components. This review highlights recent advances in understanding how secondary metabolism in Fusarium fungi is regulated at various levels, particularly through the regulation of environmental factors (e.g., light, temperature, pH, carbon, and nitrogen sources), global and pathway-specific transcriptional factors (e.g., LaeA, LaeB, AreA, Tri6, and ZEB2), epigenetic modifications (e.g., histone acetylation and methylation, DNA and RNA modifications), and signal transduction pathways (e.g., cAMP, TOR, and MAPK pathways). Furthermore, the biological significances and potential applications of some metabolites (e.g., beauvericin, bikaverin, gibberellins, fumonisins, fusaric acid, and trichothecenes) produced by Fusarium fungi were discussed. Biosynthesis regulation on SM production offers a powerful approach to either unlock silent or cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) for the discovery of new SMs, to boost the yiled of low-abundance beneficial metabolites, or suppress specific BGCs to eliminate the production of toxic compounds in Fusarium fungi. Full article

Cannabis plants are susceptible to microbial contamination, including fungi capable of producing harmful mycotoxins. The presence of these toxins in cannabis products poses serious health risks, especially when used for medical purposes in immunocompromised people. This study evaluated the presence of fungi and mycotoxins in dried cannabis buds following gamma irradiation, using culture-based techniques, PCR/qPCR, and ELISA. Irradiation significantly reduced fungal and bacterial loads, eliminating culturable bacteria but did not achieve complete sterilization. Viable spores of toxigenic fungal genera, such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium, persisted. Sequencing of ITS amplicons revealed dominant mycotoxigenic fungi in non-irradiated (NR), irradiated (IR) and licensed producer (LP) samples, while next-generation sequencing (NGS) revealed additional non-culturable toxigenic species. PCR/qPCR detected biosynthetic genes for aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and deoxynivalenol across all samples, with gene copy numbers remaining stable post-irradiation, suggesting DNA damage without full degradation. ELISA confirmed aflatoxin, ochratoxin, DON, and T2 toxins in both IR and LP samples at variable concentrations. While LP samples showed lower microbial counts and gene abundance, residual DNA and toxins were still detected. Our study shows that while irradiation decreases microbial loads, it does not completely remove toxigenic fungi or their metabolites. Ensuring the safety of cannabis products necessitates a multifaceted assessment that incorporates cultural, molecular, and immunological techniques, in parallel with more stringent microbial standards during production stage. Full article

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene mycotoxin produced by Fusarium species that frequently contaminates cereal crops, representing a major threat to food safety, public health, and agricultural productivity. Its remarkable chemical stability during food processing presents significant challenges for effective detoxification. Among the available mitigation strategies, biological approaches have emerged as particularly promising, as they exploit enzymatic systems capable of converting DON into metabolites with substantially reduced toxicity. In this study, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the structural and evolutionary mechanisms underlying DON detoxification across three kingdoms of life. We investigated the fungal glutathione S-transferase Fhb7, the bacterial DepA/DepB epimerization pathway, and the plant SPG glyoxalase using integrative bioinformatics, phylogenetics, molecular modeling, and docking simulations. The selected enzymatic systems employ distinct yet complementary strategies: Fhb7 conjugates DON with glutathione and disrupts its epoxide ring, DepA/DepB converts it into the less toxic 3-epi-DON through stereospecific epimerization, and SPG glyoxalase mediates DON isomerization. Despite their mechanistic differences, these enzymes share key adaptive features that enable efficient DON recognition and detoxification. This work provides an integrative view of cross-kingdom enzymatic strategies for DON degradation, offering insights into their evolution and functional diversity. These findings open avenues for biotechnological applications, including the development of DON-resistant crops and innovative solutions to reduce mycotoxin contamination in the food chain. Full article

Fusarium species and the mycotoxins produced by them represent a significant problem for agriculture and human health. Thus, the development of novel management strategies and tools is of high importance. Spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS), based on the natural mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi), has been considered as a highly specific and ecologically safe alternative to chemical fungicides, the use of which is restricted by the emergence of resistant strains and environmental concerns. At the same time, massive application of SIGS is challenged by the degradability of RNA molecules in the environment. Nanoparticles have been widely applied to protect RNA from degradation and improve its action. The aims of this study were to evaluate whether RNAi-mediated silencing of the regulatory FgVe1 gene leads to inhibition of growth, mycotoxin production, and pathogenicity of Fusarium graminearum and whether the use of CaP nanoparticles (CaPs) as double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) carriers enhances and prolongs the silencing effect. It was shown that dsRNA treatment of fungal liquid cultures resulted in 19.78-fold silencing of FgVe1 expression as well as inhibition of expression of genes related to secondary metabolism, including those involved in trichothecene and aurofusarin biosynthesis, thus leading to a reduction in DON accumulation and changes in culture color. The results also demonstrated that naked dsRNA and CaPs:dsRNA nanocomplexes differed in their abilities to induce a high silencing effect at different time points. Naked dsRNA proved more effective in inducing silencing in the early stages of fungal growth, whereas application of nanocomplexes provided a prolonged effect up to 10 days in liquid cultures and up to 14 days on detached leaves. The obtained data can be considered as a basis for the further development of new efficient SIGS-based plant protection strategies. Full article