Search Results (15)

During the 10th to 12th centuries, the Song, Liao, and Goryeo Dynasties and Japanese regimes in East Asia engaged in frequent activities of requesting and granting the Chinese Tripitaka (the Chinese Buddhist Canon), forming a distinctive diplomatic phenomenon termed “Tripitaka Diplomacy”. This paper examines the political and cultural dynamics underlying these cross-border interactions by analyzing the historical records of such activities among the polities. It also explores the multifaceted role of the Tripitaka in East Asian international relations, which transcended its religious significance to shape diplomatic strategies and power dynamics. Through this lens, this paper reveals the complexity of the East Asian international order during this period, emphasizing how the circulation of the Tripitaka served as both a cultural bridge and a tool for political negotiation. Full article

Inheriting a tradition of religious tolerance from the Inner Asian Steppe, the Mongol Yuan Empire elevated Buddhism to a pivotal role in unifying its multiethnic and culturally diverse domain, with Tengriist ideology serving as the political foundation for these Buddhist veneration policies. The ruling class of the Yuan dynasty practiced a complex interaction between religion and political unity through the institutionalization of the cult of writing, printing, and reading the Buddhist Canon. Specifically, the Yuan dynasty established specialized government offices to mobilize elites from Mongolian, Han Chinese, Goryeo, and other ethnic groups for the construction of a multilingual Buddhist Canon. They copied the scriptures with gold and silver ink in Chinese, Tibetan, Uyghur, and other languages. Participants in scripture copying were rewarded or granted official positions. In this way, they achieved the goal of enlisting local elites, the cohesion of the community’s beliefs, and enhanced the unity of the local elites. By subsidizing the writing and reading of Buddhist classics, the Yuan rulers succeeded in constructing a space of identity at the level of material culture and facilitated cultural interaction and political integration among various social groups such as the Mongols, ethnic groups, and Han Chinese. Through state-sponsored scripture carving and recitation activities, the Yuan rulers cultivated a shared identity in the material culture sphere, facilitating cultural exchange and political integration across the Mongolians, the Han Chinese, and other ethnic communities. However, the effectiveness of state unification was significantly constrained by the Mongolian rulers’ policy of ethnic segregation, central–local conflict, and the high concentration of social wealth in the Buddhist communities. Full article

Traditional studies on Chinese Buddhism have largely relied on printed canons from the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Goryeo dynasties. However, recent discoveries of Dunhuang and Turfan manuscripts, along with growing recognition of Nihon kosha issaikyō (Japanese Ancient Manuscript Canons), have expanded the scope of Buddhist textual research. Despite their significance, Japanese manuscript Buddhist canons remain underexplored, particularly in relation to their textual lineages and connections to Tang-dynasty texts. This study examines Nihon kosha issaikyō through a philological analysis of the Shisong lü (Ten Recitation Vinaya), assessing textual variants, structural patterns, and transmission histories. By situating Nihon kosha issaikyō within the broader East Asian Buddhist tradition, this research clarifies their role in preserving alternative textual lineages beyond standardized printed canons. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of Buddhist textual transmission, canon formation, and the interplay between manuscript and printed traditions in China, Korea, and Japan. This study highlights the historical processes that shaped East Asian Buddhist canons and offers new insights into their adaptation and preservation across different cultural contexts. Full article

The question, what was a monastic? is a complex issue, whether in the context of China, Korea or even in the homeland of Buddhism, India. Nonetheless, this is especially so in the case of Joseon Korea due to the dramatic historical changes that took place with the Imjin War. This obviously brought about shifts not only in the social status but also in the societal role of the monastics. The most substantive factors in the late-Joseon period (1600–1910) was the loss of state patronage and no longer being under the auspices of the state. Simply put, the discussed materials in this paper evince diverse images and roles of monks that range from being state officials, laborers, soldier-monks, and Seon meditators, to thieving bandits. A single descriptor would be unable to capture the diverse identities of the late-Joseon monks. Moreover, the monastics also presented themselves as highly organized with organizational aims, no different from an organization existing inescapably in everyday socio-economic and political conditions. The shared goal of the Buddhist community, by way of presenting certain images, was to regain social recognition and legitimation, to a position of power and privilege perhaps similar to what it once had during the Goryeo period (918–1392). Full article

The sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Isolate Haman, in the family Nelumbonaceae) used in this study originated from the Haman region of Korea, and lotus seeds dating back to the Goryeo Dynasty (650–760 years ago) were accidentally discovered. Lotus is known to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and soothing properties. Instead of using the lotus alone, we obtained extracts using Haman region lotus-derived callus (HLC), which allowed for a controlled, quantitative, and infinite supply. Based on the reported effects of the lotus, we formulated a hypothesis to investigate the skin-whitening effect of the HLC extract (HLCE). The HLCE was first obtained by extraction with distilled water and using 5% propanediol as a solvent and subsequently verified for the whitening effect (melanin content tests) using mammalian cells in vitro. Its efficacy at the molecular level was confirmed through real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using melanin-related genes. Furthermore, clinical trials with 21 volunteers confirmed the significant whitening effect of cosmetics containing the HLCE. In conclusion, we found that the HLCE not only has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and skin-soothing properties but also plays an essential role in skin whitening. Therefore, we propose that the HLCE has the potential to become a new raw material for the cosmetic industry. Full article

This study explores the transformation of Buddhist culture in the Jiangnan region (present-day southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang), driven by wartime disruptions during the transition from the Yuan Dynasty to the Ming. The Yuan Dynasty witnessed the flourishing of Buddhism, and in Jiangnan, the thriving Zen tradition carried on the legacy of the Southern Song Dynasty. Buddhism found many adherents among the affluent gentry class in Jiangnan, fostering a culture of generous charity that sustained and expanded Buddhism in the region. However, the conflicts toward the end of the Yuan Dynasty inflicted considerable damage on the temples, causing monks to flee. Temples, recognizable landmarks during conflicts, were susceptible to military occupation. Visiting Goryeo monks Muhak Jacho and Naong Hyegeun, and Japanese monks Mumon Gensen and Ginan, were forced to abandon their travels and return to their respective homelands, disrupting the once-thriving Buddhist exchange between Jiangnan and broader East Asia. The chaotic environment also fostered alliances between influential monks and regional powers, providing refuge for monks and an opportunity for both sides to forge beneficial connections. Anti-Yuan factions strategically protected revered monks, leveraging their influence to attract literati and intellectuals, who shared common ethical and spiritual values. This dynamic showcased the mutual benefits derived from such collaboration. Through an exploration of the interplay between politics, social forces, and Buddhism, this paper examines the impact of wartime turmoil on the development of Buddhism in the Jiangnan region. Full article

To identify printing techniques for medieval Korean books, ink tone analysis of printed characters is proposed. Ink tones of printed character images in two ancient books, The Song of Enlightenment with Commentaries by Buddhist Monk Nammyeong Cheon (南明泉和尙頌證道歌), designated as Korean treasures in 1984 and 2012, were compared and analyzed. Both books have been misidentified and disclosed by the Cultural Heritage Administration of Korea as woodblock-printed versions from the Goryeo dynasty of Korea in the 13th century. Ink tone analysis showed clear differences in brightness histograms between printed characters on the two books, suggesting printing technique differences. Statistical ink tone analysis of printed characters in the two books revealed totally different brightness (or darkness) histograms of pixels, within inked areas, suggesting differences in printing techniques and materials used for the two books. Ink tone analysis was performed for the Jikji (直指: metal type printed in Korea in 1337) and the Gutenberg Bible (metal type printed in Europe around 1455) for comparisons. As additional references, the ink tone analysis was conducted for two sets of old Korean books titled Myeongeuirok (明義錄), printed in 1777, and Sok-Myeongeuirok (續明義錄), printed in 1778, using both metal type and re-carved woodblocks. The Gongin version of The Song of Enlightenment, designated as a Korean treasure in 2012, showed very similar distribution and average brightness of ink with the metal-type-printed books from Korea and Europe from the 14th to 18th centuries. All metal-type-printed books from Korea and the Gutenberg Bible showed spotty prints with lighter ink tones and more symmetrical histograms compared with woodblock-printed Korean books from the 14th to 18th centuries. Ink tone analysis of printed character images can provide additional insights into a printing technique identification method. It is additional evidence for metal type printing of the Gongin version (空印本) of The Song of Enlightenment, designated as a Korean treasure in 2012. The version of interest is the world’s oldest extant book, printed using metal type in Korea in September 1239, as indicated in the imprint. This predates Jikji (1377) by 138 years and the 42-line Gutenberg Bible (~1455) by 216 years. Full article

This paper attempts to examine the genealogical framework of “lamp records” (denglu 燈錄) of the Chan Buddhist tradition using analytical tools and methods of Historical Social Network Analysis (HSNA) and graph theory. As an exploratory study, the primary objectives are to investigate the possibilities offered by HSNA and visualization tools for research on Chan genealogy in lamp records, explore the benefits of this approach over traditional lineage charts, and reflect on its limitations. The essay focuses on the Chan community portrayed in the Goryeo 高麗 edition of the Zutang ji 祖堂集 (Collection of the Patriarchal Hall; K.1503). It shows that the lineage reportedly stemming from Qingyuan Xingsi 青原行思 (d. ca. 740) and Shitou Xiqian 石頭希遷 (701–791), as well as the branch descending from Tianhuang Daowu 天皇道悟 (748–807) to Xuefeng Yicun 雪峰義存 (822–908) and his successors, play a crucial role within the structure of the Zutang ji’s genealogical network. The study further highlights possible irregularities in lineage claims by contrasting metrics of degree and betweenness centrality with features of the text (e.g., number of hagiographic entries, length of the entries). Full article

Since the 1920s, nearly six identical versions of an ancient printed book, The Song of Enlightenment with Commentaries by Buddhist Monk Nammyeong Cheon (南明泉和尙頌證道歌), have been found in Korea. Until very recently, they were believed to be woodblock-printed versions from the 13th to 16th centuries using woodblocks carved from the sheets of a metal-type-printed version from 1239. Two of the six versions were once identified to be woodblock prints in the Goryeo dynasty in the 13th century and designated as Korean treasures in 1984 and 2012. In 2021, one woodblock-printed version printed during the Joseon dynasty in 1526, was designated as a treasure of the Metropolitan city of Seoul, Korea. Historians in Korea have been in heated debate over the printing techniques (metal type print for one version or all woodblock prints) and printing dates (or sequence) of the two versions designated as Korean treasures for the last 50 years. It was almost a never-ending debate with struggles and anger among Korean historians due to the very subjective nature of the examination method and decision-making process by consensus. The heated debates in Korea were never brought to the world’s attention, outside of Korea, and are still considered to be a taboo subject in Korea. To conclude this heated debate with direct evidence of metal type printing of the particular version of interests, all six versions were examined by image comparisons and quantitative analyses of inked areas of individual characters, lines of characters, pages and borderlines. All claims against the possibility of metal type printing of the particular version were reviewed thoroughly. Very clear circumstantial and physical evidence for metal type printing of the version designated as a Korean treasure in 2012 was found. The version carries more than metal casting defects and has the smallest inked area (characters with thin strokes) among all six versions. The version of interest was very likely printed using movable metal type in September 1239, as indicated in the imprint, and is definitely the world’s oldest extant book, printed using metal type in Korea in 1239, predating Jikji (1377) by 138 years and the 42-line Gutenberg Bible (1455) by 216 years. Full article

Agastache rugosa (baechohyang) is one of the most important aromatic plants native to the Republic of Korea. A. rugosa fragrance has been used to prepare incense since the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea. The present study aimed to explore the variation in the composition of essential oils from A. rugosa among native populations in Korea. The seeds of A. rugosa were collected from 90 different sites in Korea and seedlings were raised in the nursery. Essential oils were extracted from these populations by the steam distillation extraction method and their chemical compositions were analyzed by GC-MS. The yield of essential oils of A. rugosa ranged between 0.11% and 0.86%. A total of 204 components were identified from 90 populations of A. rugosa. Out of 204 components, 32 components were common in more than 40 individuals of A. rugosa and these 32 components were selected for principal component analysis (PCA). On the basis of the essential oil compositions, six chemotypes—estragole, pulegone, methyl eugenol, menthone, isopulegone, and nepetalactone—were distinguished according to their major components. As a result of the cluster analysis, 90 individuals of A. rugosa could be classified into three groups: estragole, methyl eugenol, and pulegone. A. rugosa exhibited significant chemical diversity among the individuals. The distribution of chemotypes is associated with the collection of seeds, suggesting that genetic diversity may influence the variations in the chemical compositions and concentrations within the species. This chemical diversity serves as the background to select cultivars for the cultivation and industrial applications of A. rugosa cultivars with high essential oil yield and concentration of its chemical components. Full article

This study examines how the wooden architecture of the Goryeo Dynasty in Korea evolved in an original way while incorporating Chinese architectural principles. For the Goryeo Era’s timber-framed buildings, eave purlin height was determined according to √2H times the eave column height (H), while the eave column height influenced the proportional location of each purlin, determined by the √2H times decrease rate in the cross-section. Thus, eave column height was proportionately connected to a geometric sequence with a common ratio of √2H. This technical approach, achieved using an L-square ruler and a drawing compass, contributed to determining eave purlin and ridge post placement, bracket system height, and outermost bay width. This study notes that the practical works were consistently preserved in East Asian Buddhist architecture, in that a universal rule of proportion was applied to buildings constructed during the Tang–Song and the Goryeo Dynasties, surmounting differences in local construction methods. These design principles were a vestige of socio-cultural exchange on the East Asian continent and a minimal step toward the establishment of structurally safe framed buildings. Full article

This paper examines Chán master Jìngxiū’s preface to the original Zǔtáng jí in one scroll, which was presented to him by Jìng and Yún at the Zhāoqìng monastery in Quánzhōu around the mid-tenth century. Building on a recent TEI-based edition, it offers an annotated translation and comprehensive analysis of the preface, with special attention to its structure, linguistic features, and issues of intertextuality. The essay focuses on elements of textual history, the possible incentives behind the compilation of the Zǔtáng jí, and Jìngxiū’s perception of the text. Most importantly, this study investigates in detail two idiomatic expressions used by Jìngxiū (i.e., “[cases of] shuǐhè easily arise”; “[the characters] wū and mǎ are difficult to distinguish”), showing their significance for understanding the preface. In addition, we demonstrate that further research is needed to support the hypothesis according to which the original Zǔtáng jí would correspond to the first two fascicles of the received Goryeo edition of 1245. Eventually, this article serves as the first part of a research summary on the textual history of the Zǔtáng jí aimed at facilitating further studies on this highly important Chán text. Full article

Following the introduction of Buddhism to China, various strategies of accommodation with Chinese culture were developed, all amounting to some form of syncretism with Chinese religions, mainly Confucianism. Buddhism in pre-modern Korea displayed similar forms of interaction with Confucianism. This article aims to critique the notion that such interactions were merely forms of “harmonization”, finding common ground between the traditions. If one religion borrows from another or adopts the message of another religion, it will be affected to some degree, which is why the concept of syncretism is a better tool of analysis. This article concludes that there was a strong official support in Goryeo Korea towards the genuine convergence of Confucianism and Buddhism. Since Buddhism, as a result, took on many of the tasks carried out by Confucianism in China, the reaction against Buddhism by a reinvigorated Confucianism from the late fourteenth century onward was much stronger than in China. Full article

This paper explores the eclecticism of Bojo Jinul (1158–1210 CE), who is arguably the most influential historic figure in establishing and developing the Buddhist monastic institution of Korea. As a great harmonizer of the conflicting Buddhist trends in the late Goryeo period, Jinul not only shaped the foundation of the traditional monastic discipline balanced between theory and practice but also made Korean Buddhist thoughts known to a larger part of East Asia. I revisit the eclecticism of Bojo Jinul on harmonizing the two conflicting understandings of enlightenment represented by Seon (Cha’n) and Gyo (Hwaeom study) schools: the former stressing sudden enlightenment by sitting mediation and oral transmission of dharma and the latter stressing gradual cultivation by the formal training of textual and doctrinal understanding specifically on the Hwaeom Sutra. Utilizing the metaphysics of Aristotle, I confirm the logical validity of his eclecticism and address some of its moral implications. Full article

Various types of curved wooden have always been used in traditional Korean architecture. One component is a curvaceous column with varying thicknesses, and the others are curved beams or girders that are needed to support the roof and present diverse curvature. By examining the historical alteration of the parts and shapes of these curved members, it is possible to identify the sustainable aspects of Korean traditional architecture and infer the influence of the historical background on forming the sustainability of the architecture. To be specific, while the Goryeo Dynasty (10–14 C) showed an aesthetic summit of temple architecture in terms of extravagant curved wooden members precisely calculated and designed under the influence of Buddhism and aristocracy, the early Joseon Dynasty (15–16 C) presented restrained curve forms of wooden members with fewer materials and a faster process due to Neo-Confucianism, which emphasized austerity. After tremendous social crisis and two wars, the mid-Joseon Dynasty (17–18 C) showed creative indigenous houses with naturally curved timbers, minimizing the manufacturing process and maximizing the pragmatic functionality of the space under the influence of the wars and Silhak (the Realist School of Confucianism). In addition, the late Joseon Dynasty (19–20 C) presented office buildings with strengthened dynamic shapes of the naturally curved timbers as symbolic expression, which is an expanded concept beyond the functionality. In Korean traditional architecture, curved wood members have been used without interruption—although in varying degrees depending on social and economic situations—and have continued to be one of the characteristics of Korean architecture. Full article