Search Results (78)

Longmeizi 龍眉子 was an inheritor of the Southern Lineage of Daoism 道教南宗 under Weng Baoguang 翁葆光. By tracing the historical documentation of Longmeizi’s Daoist lineage, it becomes evident that the narrative details were continuously enriched through textual accumulation. By tracing and analyzing the formative history of documents related to Longmeizi’s Daoist lineage, it is evident that in the process of forming this Daoist lineage, lineage identity 宗派認同 was continuously solidified and even “labeled 標籤化” within these layered texts. The transmission genealogy between patriarchs across generations gradually became clear, definite, and verifiable. After Longmeizi compiled the Jinye Huandan Yinzheng Tu 金液還丹印證圖 (Illustrations of the Return of the Liquified Gold to the Cinnabar Field) from the Jiading period (1208–1224) of the Southern Song Dynasty to the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty, this book was initially transmitted within the Daoist lineage: Longmeizi → Bai Yuchan 白玉蟾 → Wang Jinchan 王金蟾. By the end of the Yuan Dynasty, a literatus named Yuanyangzi Lin Jing 元阳子林静 from Wuxing 吴兴 had also read this book. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the mode of transmission for the Jinye Huandan Yinzheng Tu shifted from being primarily transmitted orally within Daoist circles to being primarily disseminated through the printing and circulation of books. This led to the emergence of many different versions and commentaries of the Jinye Huandan Yinzheng Tu. Through the compilation and printing of book series, the Jinye Huandan Yinzheng Tu gained broad circulation during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Its annotators, publishers, and readers spanned various identities and social classes, while its geographic reach extended to the Central Plains (Zhongyuan 中原), Southwest China, and Jiangnan regions. By examining the textual circulation history of the Jinye Huandan Yinzheng Tu, it can be observed that the development of the book printing industry during the Ming and Qing periods, particularly the flourishing of series publications, facilitated a shift in the primary mode of transmission for Daoist texts and even in the nature of the texts themselves. On the other hand, the case study of the Jinye huandan yinzheng tu is an example that illustrates the diversity and richness in the methods of Daoist cultural transmission and their development during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Full article

This paper attempts to confirm Xiaokouyu Cave 小口峪洞 as a specific case of the stone chambers in famous mountains 名山石室 where early Daoist priests pursued their hermitic practice in mountainous seclusion. It classifies the cave as a site for early “Immortal Taoism 神僊道教” practice aimed at cultivating immortality. By cross-referencing with the knowledge system of mountain-dwelling practices outlined in Baopuzi Neipian 抱樸子內篇, the cave’s internal and external physical features, such as natural stone altars, stalactites, and the female genital symbol-like rock formation, can be correspondingly linked to the Daoist priests’ activities of jiao rituals 醮祭, Ingesting Elixirs 服食, and Intensive Meditation 精思. Meanwhile, from the perspectives of philology, visual culture, and fine arts, this paper discusses the implications of Daoist visual culture in the mountain where Xiaokouyu Cave is located and its possible connection with Mountain Dwelling and Spiritual Cultivation of Daoist Zhang Zhong 張忠 in a comprehensive manner. Full article

Mount Lu’s transformation from a natural landscape into a Buddhist sacred space provides an important case for understanding how sacred geography was produced in medieval China. Rather than treating sacredness as an inherent quality of a place or as the product of textual representation alone, this article argues that Mount Lu was sacralized through the historical interaction of monastic practice, textual production, and cultural memory. Drawing on Henri Lefebvre’s theory of the production of space, the study examines how Huiyuan (334–416) and his community redefined Mount Lu through monastic settlement, ritual activity, institutional formation, and cultural authority centered on Donglin Temple. It further analyzes how historiographical writing, literary representation, and intertextual circulation extended the mountain’s religious significance beyond the monastic community and consolidated it within broader traditions of literati culture. In this process, Mount Lu became not only a Buddhist sacred site but also a durable site of memory onto which Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian meanings could be projected and renegotiated. By tracing the interaction between embodied religious practice and textual transmission, this article shows that the sacralization of Mount Lu was neither a spontaneous religious phenomenon nor simply the result of state designation, but rather a cumulative historical achievement shaped by monastic initiative, literary circulation, and the long-term work of cultural remembrance. Full article

The mainstream Daoism of the Tang Dynasty was the Highest Clarity Tradition, a paradigmatic form of Medieval Daoism. Meanwhile, the existence of Immortal Daoism, as an offshoot, can be regarded as an undercurrent of Tang Dynasty Daoism, embodying the historical diversity of Daoism during this period. As a paradigmatic figure among Tang Dynasty literati, Li Bai had religious beliefs and practices deeply imbued with Immortal Daoist concepts. His practices centered on three core elements: questing for the immortal realm in untamed mountain landscapes, cultivating spiritual essence through reclusive seclusion, and asserting a strong self-identity as an “ostracized transcendent.” A comparative analysis of works of the same genre reveals that Li Bai’s pursuit of Daoism centered on leaving this mortal coil as a transcendent, whereas the ultimate goal of Medieval Daoist postulants was “Dedao” (to achieve perfect harmony with the Dao). When interacting with such priests, Li Bai would actively adopt the terminology of Daoist scriptures to align with their perspectives and even visit Daoist monasteries for tangible benefits. In his personal writings, he favored imagery associated with Immortal Daoism. Li Bai’s preference for Immortal Daoism not only resolves long-standing academic debates concerning his relationship with Daoism but also stands as a concrete manifestation of the variety of Daoism in the Tang Dynasty, thereby providing a multi-dimensional perspective for the study of Daoist history. Full article

The Xingqi (行气, breath circulation) pattern bronze mirrors of the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) represent a distinctive category of Daoist material culture in southern China. Despite their unique iconography, systematic research on their functions and religious significance has been lacking. This study examines sixteen Xingqi pattern bronze mirrors through iconographic analysis and textual research, integrating evidence from surviving Daoist scriptures and ritual manuals. Two primary types are identified: the “Tortoise-Swallowing and Crane-Breathing Style” and the “Sun and Moon Observing Style”. The former depicts practitioners imitating the breathing techniques of tortoises and cranes, while the latter shows figures gazing upward to ingest the essences of the sun and moon. Both motifs continue earlier health preservation traditions from the Pre-Qin (221–207 BCE) through Han dynasties, adapted within the Northern and Southern Song context. These mirrors were specifically used by Daoists along the middle Yangtze River for inner alchemy cultivation, particularly in visualized Cunsi (存思, contemplation practices). They were predominantly passed down through generations rather than buried, explaining their scarcity in archaeological contexts. These artifacts illuminate how Song Daoism translated abstract philosophical concepts into tangible, operable practices through material imagery. They provide new physical evidence for understanding historical Daoist cultivation methods and the materialization of religious experience. Full article

Daoism is an important indigenous religion of China that emerged from ancient totemic worship and shamanic practices, encompassing mysterious ritual arts known as fulu (talismans and registers). Daoist fulu writing constitutes an important content and manifestation of Daoist spiritual calligraphy, representing a significant embodiment of Daoist sacred knowledge and mystical power. This paper presents the first in-depth investigation into the sources of the mysterious numinous power inherent in Daoist fulu writing. We conclude that the spiritual power of fulu writing derives from three distinct yet interconnected levels: external divine spiritual power, innate primordial qi spiritual power, and the fundamental Dao spiritual power. These three sources are not mutually exclusive but rather work in coordination. Only through the integration of the fundamental Dao spiritual power at the primordial level with the High Master’s own innate primordial qi spiritual power can external divine spiritual power be mobilized and utilized. This unity of subject and object, essence and application, forms a complete cycle that maximizes the spiritual efficacy of the talismans. Furthermore, to apply these research findings to promote contemporary artistic creation and enhance the mystical and innovative dimension of contemporary art at the visual level, the authors, drawing upon their personal Daoist cultivation experiences and fulu writing artistic practice, will further discuss the revelatory significance of fulu writing for contemporary calligraphic art creation. Full article

Through the collection and analysis of family-sponsored statue remains from Shaanxi and surrounding regions, this study explores the practice of Daoism within local communities during the Northern Dynasties, where religious activities—such as the erection of statues—were organized around family units. Small families and households within three generations constituted the predominant organizational model of Daoist practice at the time. The primary participants were commoners, though local prominent clans also occasionally participated. While clan-sponsored statues were fewer in number, they played a significant role in local society by mobilizing statue projects and disseminating religious teachings. Religious beliefs centered on Daoism while also incorporating Buddhist elements, revealing a strong tendency toward Daoist–Buddhist interaction. This phenomenon may be attributed to the contemporary social climate that venerated both traditions, the functional similarities between Daoism and Buddhism, and the populace’s open attitude toward religious plurality. Research on these family-sponsored statue remains provides valuable materials and new perspectives for examining Daoist-practicing families of the Northern Dynasties—groups that are scarcely documented in historical texts and Daoist canons—particularly regarding their social stratification, belief structures, and lived religious practices. Full article

The publication of Richard Wilhelm’s German translation of the Daodejing in 1911 ignited a “Daoist enthusiasm” in German literary circles, offering spiritual solace to a generation disillusioned by World War I. This article explores the creative reception of Daoist thought by the German writer Klabund (1890–1928), arguing that he reinterpreted Daoism not merely as a philosophy but as a religious response to the spiritual and political crises of post-war Germany. Through a comparative analysis of Klabund’s Laotse. Sprüche and Wilhelm’s source text, this study reveals how Klabund, through the selection, reorganization, and substitution of key terms, constructs a “practicable faith” for his contemporaries. The article further examines how this reconstruction extends into his literary works: Li-Tai-Pe aestheticizes Daoist themes like “softness” and “water”, Dreiklang elevates Laozi to a “divine incarnation” within a syncretic religious framework alongside Christ and Buddha, and The Last Emperor applies Daoist political wisdom to critique imperial power. Klabund’s approach illustrates a unique model of cross-cultural dialogue, where ancient Eastern wisdom is transformed into a “revolution of the heart”, serving as a spiritual antidote to the modern Western crisis of faith. Full article

Yan Zun’s Laozi Zhigui is the earliest surviving commentary that systematically interprets the Laozi through the lens of the Yijing. It holds pioneering significance in the history of Laozi studies and intellectual history. This paper systematically examines its ways of quoting the Yijing—explicit citation, implicit appropriation, and in-depth infiltration—to reveal Yan Zun’s interpretive strategy of reconstructing the ideological system of the Laozi through the philosophical principles of the Yijing. This study finds that the Yijing learning not only provided Yan Zun with a cosmogonic model of “Spirit Illumination—Supreme Harmony—Qi’s Transformation and Separation”, thereby resolving the ambiguity of the Laozi’s cosmology, but also prompted him to construct a view of heaven that integrates “vigorous creativity” and “softness and non-action”. By incorporating such concepts from the Yijing as “cultivating both virtue and achievement”, he formed an orderly political philosophy of “abiding by one’s proper place” to attain “Supreme Harmony”. Abandoning the image-number Yi learning of the Han Dynasty, Yan Zun returned to the philosophical tradition of the Yijing. His synthesis of the Yijing and the Laozi not only influenced Yang Xiong’s Taixuan and Eastern Han classical learning but also served as a crucial intellectual precursor to Wei-Jin Xuanxue and exerted a lasting impact on the theoretical framework of Daoist religious thought. Full article

Zhenwu (Perfected Warrior), one of the most influential Daoist martial deities, was historically shaped by the northern celestial emblem Xuanwu and later personified and integrated into the Daoist pantheon. While scholarship on Zhenwu has largely relied on textual sources, cliff sculptures provide a material setting in which doctrine, ritual space, and iconography can be examined together. Taking the Zhenwu niche (No. 1) at Nanshan, Dazu (Chongqing) as a case study, this article first situates the niche within the spatial program of the Nanshan Daoist carvings and describes its architectural design, composition, and inscriptional evidence of worship. It then revisits key motifs associated with Zhenwu—such as the sword, bare feet, and the turtle–snake pair—through Daoist and inner-alchemical (neidan) textual traditions. Rather than positing a direct or exclusive link between the Nanshan sculpture and inner-alchemical practice, the article argues that the niche mobilizes an established iconographic repertoire that could have resonated with late imperial discourses of self-cultivation, and that its northern placement within the Nanshan ensemble reinforces these cosmological associations. By combining site-based analysis with a cautious reading of Daozang and neidan texts, the study contributes to scholarship on Daoist visual culture and offers a framework for comparing Zhenwu images across regions and media. Full article

In the face of escalating ecological crises, this study explores the ecological wisdom embedded in Laozi’s concept of “Dao” and Ralph Waldo Emerson’s belief in the “Over-Soul,” conducting a systematic comparative analysis of their views on nature within the framework of ecological religion. Laozi’s “Dao” serves as the cornerstone of Daoist thought, emphasizing the unity of heaven, earth, and humans as the origin and governing law of the universe. It advocates “Dao follows nature” (道法自然), urging humans to relinquish excessive interference and utilitarian desires, humbly integrating into nature’s inherent rhythms for harmonious coexistence while inspiring reverence for nature’s sacredness and inherent worth. Emerson’s “Over-Soul,” central to New England Transcendentalism, posits a universal spirit permeating all existence, with nature as its outward manifestation and symbolic expression of the divine. Through direct engagement with nature, individuals access spiritual elevation, moral insight, and reverence for all life forms. Despite distinct cultural origins, both Laozi and Emerson sacralize nature, foster opposition to anthropocentric exploitation, and envision harmonious human–nature relations—albeit through different pathways: Wuwei and surrender for Laozi; intuitive communion for Emerson. While their metaphysical visions do not fully align with modern ecocentric notions of objective intrinsic value (as articulated in contemporary environmental ethics), they offer profound resources for reverent coexistence. This comparative study deepens cross-cultural understanding of ecological wisdom, challenging modernity’s instrumental worldview and providing philosophical insights for constructing a rational, reverent ecological ethic. By bridging Eastern and Western mystical traditions, it highlights their shared potential to inspire sustainable development, spiritual renewal, and a transformative shift toward coexistence with the non-human world. Full article

While scholarship has predominantly focused on the “harmony” of Confucian ethics or the functional and generative “harmony” of pre-Qin Lao-Zhuang Daoism, this study identifies a unique conceptual system of “harmony” in Han Dynasty Daoism through a textual excavation of Yan Zun’s Laozi zhigui. Yan Zun transcends the relatively abstract generative narratives of pre-Qin Daoism by creatively substantializing “harmony” into “supreme harmony”, positioning it as a pivotal stage in the four-tiered cosmogonic schema of “Dao–De–Shenming–supreme harmony”. By regarding “supreme harmony” as the “ancestor of Heaven and Earth” and the ontological foundation for the nature and life of all things, Yan Zun endows “harmony” with a definitive ontological status. This cosmological and ontological category further permeates the domains of self-cultivation and state governance. In the realm of self-cultivation, Yan Zun advocates for “valuing the body and nourishing the spirit”, promoting the practice of spirit and qi embracing and tranquil non-action to achieve the existential realization and transcendence of individual life; in the realm of state governance, he criticizes rites and laws for harming natural harmony, proposing that the ruler should “embody the Dao and tread upon harmony”. This approach establishes a governance of non-action that aligns with the “utmost softness” of supreme harmony, thereby reconstructing an ideal political order where “harmonious qi flows freely.” The concept of “supreme harmony” advocated by Yan Zun not only marks the maturation of Han Daoist qi-cosmology, but also offers a new theoretical horizon for re-understanding the transformation of the concept of “harmony” from ethics to ontology in Chinese philosophy. Full article

The construction of Daoism’s pantheon is deeply intertwined with traditional Chinese celestial studies. From the Eastern Han to the Northern Wei dynasties, based on star worship and belief in Taiyi, Laozi was deified as the Great High Lord Lao. In the Eastern Jin, Ge Hong drew on the Huntian theory to shape Pangu (the Primordial Heavenly King) as a creator deity, yet his status declined due to the limited Daoist immortal realm within a finite spatial category that failed to align with Daoism’s boundless concepts. The infinite cosmology and Qi Theory of the Xuanye Theory provided new theoretical support for Daoism. Building on these, the Lingbao School created the Heavenly Worthy of the Primordial Beginning and the Grand Canopy Heaven. Through subsequent integration and elaboration by various sects, the Heavenly Worthy of the Primordial Beginning established his position as the supreme deity, and the Grand Canopy Heaven gained authority, transcending finiteness. This evolutionary process demonstrates the profound influence of traditional Chinese celestial studies on the construction of Daoism’s pantheon. Full article

This paper critically examines Lu Guolong’s interpretation of tianren heyi, arguing that his portrayal of it as an inherent virtue of Chinese culture—and his positioning of Daoism between Confucianism and Buddhism—remains conceptually inadequate. Through a textual analysis of oracle-bone inscriptions, the Shangshu, and the Guoyu, the study reconstructs the notions of shenmin bu za and the four historical “transgressions”, thereby demonstrating that tianren heyi is not a singular, unchanging tradition but a historically generated and internally diverse phenomenon. By distinguishing between the Confucian model of you ren zhi tian, the Daoist model of you tian zhi ren or you ziran zhi ren, and the Daoist practice of yi ren zhi tian, this paper highlights the Daoist distinctive emphasis on the embodied dimension—pursuing tianren heyi through corporeal cultivation and the twin disciplines of waidan and neidan. The modern trend of celebrating tianren heyi as an emblem of Chinese cultural excellence calls for cautious reinterpretation—one that carefully distinguishes its ontological meaning from its practical and historical articulations. Full article

Internal Boxing (neijiaquan 內家拳) is an advanced form of the Daoist gymnastic exercise of daoyin (導引). However, how it achieves a paradigmatic shift from qi/blood regulation to deep-level transmutation of sexual energy still requires further exploration. Therefore, it is of great significance to look into how Internal Boxing inheres and integrates various techniques of “desire transmutation” (zhuanyu 轉欲) from internal alchemy (neidan 內丹), thereby transcending traditional daoyin, bringing about a significant systematic reconfiguration in the model of body cultivation practices in Daoist medicine. The traditional daoyin (i.e., “guiding and stretching”) practice emphasizes the regulation of qi/blood, but it remains limited in accounting for and producing the self-conscious transmutation of sexual energy. In contrast, Internal alchemy provides a different system of theory and techniques, which is centered on the concept of “transmutation of desires”, converting human desires into high-level life energy through a process of interaction between one’s internal spirit (xinshen 心神) and internal breathing (neixi 內息). This study thus examines the ways in which Internal Boxing integrates and reconfigures these techniques within its bodily training regimen. In the core of all these styles is the goal to refine the primordial essence (yuanjing 元精) by transitioning the method to induce the flow of vital energy from breathing to somatic movements. As a result, this study shows that the innovations of Internal Boxing reconfigure the qi/blood regulation model in the traditional daoyin practice, causing a systematic reconfiguration in the transmutation of sexual energy and, further, bridging the gap between daoyin and internal alchemy in both theory and practice. Furthermore, such innovations also develop a holistic view of the human body as marked by an emphasis on the “unity of pre-heaven (xiantian 先天) and post-heaven (houtian 後天) states”, which expands in both depth and breadth the theories of body cultivation practices in Daoist medicine. Full article