The Systematic Reconfiguration in the Body Cultivation of Daoist Medicine: The Internal Boxing’s Incorporation of the “Desire Transformation” Techniques from the Internal Alchemy Tradition

Abstract

Internal Boxing (neijiaquan 內家拳) is an advanced form of the Daoist gymnastic exercise of daoyin (導引). However, how it achieves a paradigmatic shift from qi/blood regulation to deep-level transmutation of sexual energy still requires further exploration. Therefore, it is of great significance to look into how Internal Boxing inheres and integrates various techniques of “desire transmutation” (zhuanyu 轉欲) from internal alchemy (neidan 內丹), thereby transcending traditional daoyin, bringing about a significant systematic reconfiguration in the model of body cultivation practices in Daoist medicine. The traditional daoyin (i.e., “guiding and stretching”) practice emphasizes the regulation of qi/blood, but it remains limited in accounting for and producing the self-conscious transmutation of sexual energy. In contrast, Internal alchemy provides a different system of theory and techniques, which is centered on the concept of “transmutation of desires”, converting human desires into high-level life energy through a process of interaction between one’s internal spirit (xinshen 心神) and internal breathing (neixi 內息). This study thus examines the ways in which Internal Boxing integrates and reconfigures these techniques within its bodily training regimen. In the core of all these styles is the goal to refine the primordial essence (yuanjing 元精) by transitioning the method to induce the flow of vital energy from breathing to somatic movements. As a result, this study shows that the innovations of Internal Boxing reconfigure the qi/blood regulation model in the traditional daoyin practice, causing a systematic reconfiguration in the transmutation of sexual energy and, further, bridging the gap between daoyin and internal alchemy in both theory and practice. Furthermore, such innovations also develop a holistic view of the human body as marked by an emphasis on the “unity of pre-heaven (xiantian 先天) and post-heaven (houtian 後天) states”, which expands in both depth and breadth the theories of body cultivation practices in Daoist medicine.

1. Introduction

Daoist medicine is a composite system deeply rooted in history and culture. At its core, it can be defined as “a comprehensive medical model that integrates physiological treatment, psychological adjustment, social care, and faith-based healing, whose theoretical foundation is built upon Daoist cosmology, views of heaven and human, and conceptions of body and mind (shenxin 身心). 一種融生理治療、心理調適、社會關懷與信仰療愈於一體的綜合性醫學模式，其理論根基建立在道教的宇宙論、人天觀及身心觀之上” (Gai and He 2013, p. 3). This system encompasses a wide range of therapies in scope: it encompasses therapies shared with traditional Chinese medicine, such as herbal medicine (bencao 本草), prescriptions (yifang 醫方), and acupuncture (zhenjiu 針灸). It also incorporates health-preserving techniques such as Daoist daoyin, massage, vital energy circulation (qifa 氣法), and grain avoidance (bigu 辟穀); and it further extends to religiously inflected methods of healing, including talismanic water (fushui 符水), divinatory prescriptions (yaoqian 藥簽), incantations (zhuyou 祝由), and ritual fasting and offerings (zhaijiao 齋醮). Among these, daoyin, as a practice of health preservation and healing method centered on bodily practice, involves a range of operations such as bodily movement, breath regulation, and vocal modulation to achieve harmony of body and mind and to enhance health, which belongs to the category of Daoist medicine to treat diseases and maintain health through body cultivation practice. Its theoretical foundations can be traced back to Zhuangzi 莊子 and Basic Questions on the Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi Neijing 黃帝內經). The excavated “Book of Daoyin” (Yinshu 引書) from the Zhangjiashan 張家山 Han Dynasty bamboo slips and the “Daoyin Illustrations” (daoyintu 導引圖) from the Mawangdui 馬王堆 Han tombs 漢墓 provide early material evidence for the practice of Daoyin. Even today, daoyin remains widely transmitted as an important component of everyday health practices in China.

In addition to such common practices as Daoist daoyin, a more sophisticated and advanced system of mind and body cultivation exists within the Chinese tradition of health preservation and spiritual cultivation, i.e., internal alchemy (Neidan 內丹). This system focuses on cultivating and nourishing essence (jing 精), vital energy, and spirit (shen 神), with the ultimate goal of achieving immortality (chengxian 成仙) through unity with the Dao. Throughout its development, internal alchemy absorbed earlier techniques such as Daoist daoyin, vital energy qi circulation, and bedchamber arts (fangzhongshu 房中術), and as it matured, it profoundly influenced numerous forms of cultivation. For example, Daoist daoyin after the Song and Yuan dynasties gradually incorporated internal alchemy concepts such as the energy center (Dantian 丹田 also called the cinnabar field) and essence and vital energy, shifting its focus from external physical movements to the internal flow of vital energy and the refinement of spiritual consciousness (shenyi 神意). However, Daoist daoyin has never reached the pre-heaven state sought by internal alchemy. It is often considered a rudimentary art of healing (fangshu 方術) by internal alchemy practitioners. Accordingly, the theoretical system of daoyin is fundamentally different from internal alchemy. While the two have historically intertwined, their philosophical foundations, practical methods, and ultimate goals differ significantly.

This situation did not change until the emergence of a unique type of Daoist daoyin, namely, Internal Boxing, represented by Taiji Boxing (Taijiquan, 太極拳), Intention Boxing (Xingyi Quan, 形意拳), and Eight Trigrams Palm Boxing 八卦掌. Daoist daoyin is based on the principle of “guiding the flow of vital energy to create an internal balance and stretching the body to effect external somatic flexibility” (Guo 2016, p. 539), with the goal of maintaining health and curing illness. While Internal Boxing possesses prominent combat capabilities, the practice principles and fitness benefits are highly consistent with Daoist daoyin. However, it differs from the other practices of Daoyin, as it emphasizes a deep connection with internal alchemy, and traces its origins to enlightened masters and extensively draws on internal alchemy terminology in the theoretical construction. What is even more notable is that the practitioners of Internal Boxing do not think Daoist daoyin is inferior to internal alchemy practice. Instead, they emphasize the unity of their fundamental concepts and ultimate pursuits. Thus, what are the characteristics of Internal Boxing that enable its practitioners to psychologically cross the clear boundary between Daoist daoyin and internal alchemy?

While traditional Chinese historiography often separates martial arts from medical practices, international scholars like Louis Komjathy have highlighted the ‘cultivation of reality’ (xiuzhen 修真) model, where somatic movements serve as a vehicle for the same cosmological goals found in internal alchemy (Komjathy 2007, pp. 1–30). This study builds on Catherine Despeux’s analysis of the symbolic body to argue that Internal Boxing functions as a bridge between martial efficacy and alchemical transformation (Despeux [2012] 2018, pp. 7–11). This connection is further nuanced by the work of Ryan (2008), who offers a modern sociological perspective on how internal alchemy is reframed within the global transmission of Taiji Boxing (Ryan 2008, pp. 525–43). Ryan’s research illustrates that even in contemporary Western contexts, the visibility—or strategic disappearance—of sexual-alchemical elements remains a defining feature of the art’s identity. By examining how internal alchemy is translated for global audiences, Ryan reinforces the premise that the ‘internal’ nature of these boxing styles is fundamentally rooted in the alchemical management of desire and vital energy, even when those origins are masked by modern health-oriented rhetoric.

Scholars generally agree that a key difference between internal alchemy and ordinary health-preserving techniques lies in their practice approach, which aims to reverse the path from the post-heaven physical realm to the pre-heaven way leading to emptiness and nothingness (xuwu 虛無) (Ge 2012, p. 112). However, another factor that deserves further attention is that internal alchemy practice relies heavily on the transformation of the body’s sexual energy in its initial stages, while general Daoist daoyin primarily relies on physical exercise and the shift in qi/blood to achieve health preservation and healing. It is precisely on the question of whether sexual energy can be transformed that the two fundamentally diverge. As an advanced form of Daoist daoyin, Internal Boxing also possesses the ability to shift qi/blood through movement, but the underlying mechanism of its Chinese martial arts or Chinese combat techniques (jiji 技擊) and health-preserving effects is also based on the transformation of sexual energy. Since the transformation of sexual energy presupposes the redirection of male and female desire, we refer to it as “desire transmutation 轉欲”, meaning the sublimation of sexual energy through redirecting desire. It is through the absorption and integration of “desire transmutation” techniques in internal alchemy that enables Internal Boxing to transcend traditional Daoist daoyin and consciously places itself on a par with internal alchemy in both theory and practice. As an important part of Daoist medicine’s body cultivation practice, the leap of Internal Boxing’s body and mind practice system has also promoted the innovation of the Daoist medicine’s physique practice paradigm.

Based on the above understanding, this study proceeds on three levels. Firstly, in response to the issue of why the practitioners of internal alchemy criticized Daoist daoyin and other related healing techniques in history, the author argues that its core limitation lies in the absence of effective techniques for transforming sexual energy, and analyzes in detail the internal structure and practice mechanism of this transformative technology. Secondly, it will examine Internal Boxing’s theoretical incorporation and technical integration with internal alchemy, highlighting its absorption of the key techniques of sexual energy transformation, and analyzing concretely how this manifests and functions within Internal Boxing practice. Finally, it will show how, under the influence of internal alchemy, Internal Boxing transcends the limitations of traditional daoyin, thereby raising Daoist medical bodily practices from health preservation and therapy to a holistic transformation of body and mind.

2. The Disparagement of Daoyin in Internal Alchemy and Its Theory of Refining Essence with Wind and Fire (Fenghuolianjing 風火煉精)

Critiques of healing arts (including particularly Daoist daoyin) are frequently encountered in numerous internal alchemy texts. For example, in such internal alchemy texts, as an early alchemical classic frequently appropriated within later internal alchemy traditions, Zhonglü chuandao ji 鐘呂傳道集, Wuzhen pian 悟真篇, and Zhonghe ji 中和集, many internal alchemy practitioners regard these techniques as a “side-door minor methods 旁門”. They assert that, although these practices may maintain health and prolong life, they ultimately remain “far removed from the Dao” (Shi 2015)—i.e., they are essentially different from the real Dao of the Golden Elixir. Thus, what is the origin of the disparagement among internal alchemy practitioners? What is unique about internal alchemy practice?

2.1. A Prominent and Influential Articulation of Disparagement of Daoyin in Internal Alchemy

A prominent articulation of this critical attitude of inner alchemy practitioners lies in the unique core mechanism of their practice–transforming sexual energy, which is regarded as the core mechanism. A poem in the Wuzhen pian 悟真篇 of Zhang Boduan 張伯端 (987–1082) provides an important clue: “If one does not recognize the true ancestor of the true lead, all efforts are in vain. Divorcing one’s wife in vain dispels the sundering of yin and yang, abstaining from food only leads to an empty stomach. Plants and herbs, though marked by yin and yang, are mere dregs; Clouds, sun, and moon are but hazy illusions. Even if one adds tuna and visualization, None of these relate to the practice of the Golden Elixir (jindan 金丹).” 不識真鉛正祖宗，萬般作用枉施功。休妻謾遣陰陽隔，絕粒徒教腸胃空。草木陰陽皆滓質，雲霞日月屬朦朧。更饒行氣並存想，總與金丹事不同” (Zhang 1990, p. 27). The Golden Elixir here refers to internal alchemy. The poem explicitly states that internal alchemy practice is neither about abstinence nor about grain avoidance; it does not rely on external medicines such as grass, wood, metals, or stones 草木金石, nor on external scenes such as clouds, mist, sun, and moon 雲霞日月. Even arts of healing practice, such as circulating breath and contemplation, are fundamentally different from the real Dao of the Golden Elixir. The key issue lies in “true inner essence 真鉛”, which is regarded as the yang aspect of vital energy (yangqi 陽氣) in the human body within the system of pure internal alchemy methods and is closely related to reproductive function.

Ito Mitsutoshi 伊藤光遠 also pointed out, “Most of the various cultivation methods in the world generally aim at strengthening the mind, training the body, and deepening the breathing”. Their results are generally similar. Refining the Elixir of Daoist alchemy, however, is completely different in nature. Its purpose—beyond all these conditions—centers most crucially on our sexual desire. Thus, internal alchemy adepts proudly insist: no matter the myriad methods, they are all different from the work of the Golden Elixir. “世間種種修養法，多是以強固心力、鍛煉肉身、加深呼吸為目的，其結局總是大同小異。至於煉丹則是全異其趣。煉丹的目的，除了上說各種條件外還有最重要的事項，即是我們的性本能……所以煉丹家高自矜持著說：任他萬般差別法，總與金丹事不” (Ito 1988, p. 3). This shows that internal alchemy practice focuses on transforming sexual desires (that is, sexual energy), which is regarded as its core mechanism. It is this fundamental characteristic that distinguishes it from other arts of healing and thus provides the basis for internal alchemy adepts to regard themselves as transcending ordinary health-preserving methods.

2.2. The Theory of Refining Essence with Wind and Fire in Inner Alchemy

However, the “sexual energy” on which Daoist internal alchemy practice relies is fundamentally different from what we ordinarily understand as the concept of sexual desire or reproductive essence. The key distinction lies in the differentiation between “pre-heaven essence” and “post-heaven essence”. “Pre-heaven essence”, also known as primordial essence (yuanjing 元精): pure, creative, is considered the fundamental substance of human life and the core “medicine” of internal alchemy practice to transform body and mind and reach higher states of life. “Post-heaven essence”, by contrast, is the physical essence that results when “pre-heaven essence” is drawn downward and disturbed by consciousness and desire. It governs reproduction and is easily dissipated. The way that internal alchemy views the body is that it believes that human life is constituted by the “pre-heaven energy” (the primordial cosmic energy) and the “post-heaven essence” (the physical body from the fusion of paternal sperm and maternal blood 父精母血). The “pre-heaven essence” is precisely the condensation and manifestation of the “pre-heaven energy” within the human body.

Yet in the natural process of life, this pure “pre-heaven essence” is often transformed into “post-heaven essence”, i.e., reproductive essence, by the stirrings of “post-heaven” sense and consciousness (especially desire). As Wu Chongxu 伍沖虛 (1573–1644?) of the Ming Dynasty put it, during adolescence, the vital essence and energy are abundant. “Sometimes, when vital energy penetrates the right path (yangguan 陽關), the spiritual of lust also reaches the primal essence. When the spirit and vital energy combine, they flow smoothly and become the basis for human life. “或有時而炁透陽關，則情欲之神亦到陽關，神和氣相合則順行，為生人之本” (Wu 2012, pp. 62–63). Liu Huayang 柳華陽 (1736–?) of the Qing Dynasty also pointed out: “Once mundane thoughts arise, it inevitably turns into lustful essence”; “若夫塵念兼起，必化淫精” (Liu 2012, p. 284). Therefore, the pre-heaven primal essence of internal alchemy refers to a pure “vitality 生機” related to reproductive instinct yet not tainted by desire; while the essence of post-heaven is the product of the mixture of this vital energy and lust. Hence, a question naturally arises: If male and female desire also belong to instinct, how can internal alchemy practice separate vitality from desire in order to obtain pure pre-heaven essence?

Internal alchemy practitioners usually achieve this separation through the practice of “refining oneself or self-cultivation (Lianji 煉己)”. In Tianxian Zhenli Zhilun 天仙正理直論, Wu Chongxu 伍沖虛 systematically expounded: “The ‘oneself 己 refers to a person’s ‘true nature 真性’ in stillness and his ‘true intention 真意’ in movement. It is another name for ‘the origin of life or primordial spirit 元神’… For a man who cultivates refinement, it means: when the ear follows sound, practice hearing as if not hearing; when the eye follows color, practice seeing as if not seeing; when the spirit follows sensation, practice engaging as if not thinking. “己者，即我靜中之真性，動中之真意，為元神之別名也……能煉之者，因耳逐聲而用聽，則煉之于不聞。目逐色而用觀，則煉之於不見。神逐感而用交，則煉之於不思” (Wu 2012, p. 18). Since the human mind is easily distracted by external factors such as lustful sights, sounds, and affairs, this mental state contradicts the “pure state 清淨心” of mind required for refining the vital essence and energy. Therefore, it requires prior cultivation or practice. The key lies in “to be unconcerned/indifferent in the face of external stimuli” (duijngwuxin 對境無心)—the senses may encounter external stimuli, but inwardly the mind remains awake and unmoved—hearing as if not hearing, seeing as if not seeing, thinking as if not thinking. Such cultivation skill of “being indifferent in the face of stimuli” enables practitioners, when vitality impulses arise, not to fall into desire, thereby preserving the primordial essence and laying the foundation for its later subsequent transformation.

However, “being indifferent in the face of stimuli” refers to a method of practice in the dynamic context. Prior to this, the foundational effort of cultivating the original essence (benyuan 本元) or “primordial spirit” through tranquility and meditation is required. Internal alchemy often refers to “unity of the vital essence and energy 神氣合一”. It should firstly be clarified that the “vital energy 氣” here refers to the breath of respiration, distinct from the “vital energy 炁”, which represents pre-heaven energy. Here, this “breath” is not the coarse inhalation and exhalation of mouth and nose, but rather the gradual refinement of breathing until it is achieved through harmonizing oral and nasal breathing, gradually becoming finer 細, softer 柔, more continuous 綿, and longer 長. Ultimately, it no longer manifests through the mouth and nose, but instead sinks to a subtle breath below the navel. This subtle breath is called “vital energy” or “true breath 真息”. When the internal mind and spirit with true breath are in harmony, a two-way regulating effect is produced; on the other hand, it allows the internal spirit, which tends to wander outward, to return to the inner itself; on the other hand, it allows the breath to sink back to its roots. With the internal spirit turning inward and no longer grasping outwardly, the state of “being indifferent in the face of stimuli” naturally arises. Thus, this method of “uniting of the vital essence and energy” reverses the habitual tendency of the internal spirit, which is easily distracted by external conditions and often transforms into desire.

Theoretically, “unity of the vital essence and energy” can indeed prevent the emergence of sexual desire. However, for internal alchemy, this is merely the most fundamental step of practice, followed by a series of complex steps, including the refinement of the primordial essence. According to the alchemical texts 丹經 in the Daoist Canon 道藏, original vital energy constantly circulates throughout the body. However, due to its formlessness 無形無相, the practitioner can only perceive its presence and then practice the techniques of taking and refining essence when it transforms into primal essence. In normal circumstances, vital energy transforms into primal essence to nourish the body, which is a spontaneous process known as “the right moment for cultivation (huozishi 活子時)”. However, if the internal spirit achieves a state of pure freedom from thought, vital energy inevitably transforms into primordial essence. In this sense, the unity of the vital essence and energy constitutes the necessary and sufficient condition for the generation of primal essence, transforming the spontaneous process into a self-regulatory practice.

The specific process of refining the primordial essence is described in Jinxian Zhenglun 金仙證論1. Liu argues that internal alchemy practitioners are required to coordinate a focused mind and internal spirit as “fire (huo 火)” and deep internal breathing as “wind (feng 風)” to “refine” the primordial essence (Liu 2012, p. 290). The end product of this process is said to be the “true inner essence 真種”, which, according to internal alchemy, is conceived as the foundation for practitioners to achieve a fundamental transformation of life and attain immortality.

2.3. Definition of “Desire Transmutation”

The above analysis shows that Daoism’s internal alchemy practice has constructed a unique set of body-transformation techniques through the practices of “unity of the vital essence and energy 神氣合一” and “unity of the primordial essence and energy 神炁合一”. Its core lies in the reversal and sublimation of sexual energy, which is what distinguishes it from, and consciously surpasses, other techniques like Daoist gymnastic exercise of daoyin. To facilitate the subsequent analysis of how Internal Boxing incorporates this technique, we need to further define the core concept of “desire transmutation”.

“Desire transmutation”, in internal alchemy practice and other systems influenced by it, refers to the practice of transforming sexual energy from its natural, reproductive, and dissipative physiological impulses into a higher form of vital energy that nourishes the mind, body, and spirit. The theoretical foundation of this practice acknowledges sexual energy as the primordial life-force and posits that, through specific techniques, its natural tendency towards dissipation can be reversed and redirected towards self-strengthening and transcendence. This system involves both psychological and physiological operations: psychologically, it cultivates a state of “being indifferent in the face of stimuli”, thereby stripping desire of its emotional projections and capturing the pure vital energy; physiologically, it employs the coordination of true breath and internal mind and spirit to refine and transform the primordial essence. Thus, “desire transmutation” is not a mere repression of lust but an active discipline for converting the primordial drive of life into a creative, originary energy.

More specifically, “desire transmutation” operates on two distinct yet inseparable levels: subjectively, it is a cognitive redirection of the “spirit of lust” into “consciousness infused with primordial spirit”; objectively, it is the energetic refinement process known as refining essence with wind and fire. Within this framework, desire transmutation is not merely a prerequisite but the active catalyst that allows the practitioner to capture the “true seed” before it dissipates into post-heaven desire. The following discussion will explore how Internal Boxing integrates the core principles and operations of this transformative technique, thereby transcending the limits of traditional daoyin practices. Having established the theoretical mechanism of ‘desire transmutation’ in internal alchemy, the following section examines how these principles were practically integrated into the somatic training of Internal Boxing.

3. The Integration and Practice of Sexual Energy Transformation Techniques in Internal Boxing

Traditionally, Taiji Boxing 太極拳, Intention Boxing 形意拳, and Eight Trigrams Palm Boxing 八卦拳 are generally considered representatives of Internal Boxing. We follow this conventional classification. Although Internal Boxing possesses the efficacy of combat, it is actually related to Daoist daoyin. As Livia Kohn noted, “In a separate development of healing exercises in the late Ming and early Qing periods, the exercises also served as the foundation of martial practices, among which the best known are Taiji boxing and Shaolin gongfu (martial practice of Shaolin temple)” (Kohn 2008, p. 189). Hu Fuchen 胡孚琛 (1945–) held a similar view: “Some branches of Daoist daoyin evolved in the direction of Chinese martial arts, gradually forming the Daoist Internal Boxing.” 道教導引術的一些流派向技擊方向演變，逐漸形成了道教內家拳” (Hu 2009, p. 263). In addition, Internal Boxing is associated with internal alchemy, as its core practice method includes the “desire transmutation” technique, derived from internal alchemy. While Sun Lutang provides a definitive theoretical bridge, his work should be understood within the broader Republican-era trend of using internal alchemy vocabulary to legitimize and intellectualize martial experience.

3.1. The Inward Alignment of Internal Boxing with Internal Alchemy

It has long been believed that Taiji Boxing has close ties to Daoism, particularly to internal alchemy. For example, many Taiji masters trace its founder to Zhang Sanfeng 張三豐, a master of internal alchemy at Wudang 武當 Mountain. Although this view is highly controversial in modern scholarship, it is undeniable that many accomplished Taiji masters frequently draw upon Danjing (alchemical texts) to interpret boxing principles. For instance, concepts used in the Taiji Manual 太極拳譜, such as “Taiji”, “Wuji”, and “Dantian”, are clearly derived from the internal alchemy tradition. (Wang 1991, pp. 24–25). Sun Lutang 孫祿堂 (1860–1933) used the metaphor of “the mysterious gate to Dao (Xuanguan 玄關)” to illustrate the “concept of the middle path (zhongdao 中道)” in Taiji Boxing (L. Sun 2001, p. 377). Sun Lutang’s use of the ‘Mysterious Gate’ (Xuanguan) is not merely a rhetorical flourish; it represents a fundamental structural adoption of alchemical theory. In the Wuzhen pian, the Xuanguan is the non-spatial point where pre-heaven and post-heaven meet. By locating this ‘gate’ within the bodily ‘central harmony’ of Taiji movements, Internal Boxing practitioners effectively operationalize the alchemical ‘Daoist Return’ (fanhuan 返還) through kinetic experience. Chen Weiming 陳微明 (1881–1958) interpreted the opening and closing of Taiji boxing in terms of the rising and falling of vital energy (Chen 2016, p. 276). Zheng Manqing 鄭曼青 (1902–1975) compared the union of heart and backbone in Taiji boxing to the alchemical union of Kan and Li 坎離, which represent the two fundamental forces of Yin and Yang (Zheng 1978, p. 29). All these examples are clear evidence of the interpretation of Taiji Boxing through the lens of Daoist alchemy.

As for intention boxing, its theory can be illustrated as follows: “If one nourishes the spiritual root 靈根 and moves the mind 動心, it belongs to combat; if one nourishes the spiritual root and stills the mind 靜心, it belongs to practitioners of Dao. “養靈根而動心者，敵將也；養靈根而靜心者，修道也” (L. Sun 2001, p. 327). This view distinguishes between combat and Daoist cultivation through the contrast between “moving the mind” and “stilling the mind”, yet it also points to their common foundation, i.e., “nourishing the spiritual root”. Intention boxing takes the theory of the Five Phases (wuxing 五行) as its core, associating the five fists, i.e., splitting fist (pi 劈), crushing fist (beng 崩), cannon fist (pao 炮), drilling fist (zuan 鑽), and crossing fist (heng 橫), with the five viscera—i.e., lungs 肺, liver 肝, heart 心, kidneys 腎, and spleen 脾, respectively. It harmonizes the internal flow of vital energy through external movements, pursuing a state of bodily “central harmony” 中和. This logic of inner harmonization through outer movement highly corresponds with internal alchemy’s principle of regulating vital energy through sensory experience.2

Eight Trigrams Palm was widely transmitted by Dong Haichuan 董海川 (1797–1882), who was said to have learned the techniques from a mysterious figure in Yuhua Mountain 渝花山, Anhui Province. Although the master’s identity remains unknown, the principles of boxing are deeply rooted in the Daoist philosophical system. Eight Trigrams Palm takes its name from the “Eight Trigrams” 八卦, which maps parts of the human body onto the symbolic system of the trigrams. For example, the head corresponds to Heaven (Qian 乾) 頭為乾, the abdomen to the receptive (Kun 坤) 腹為坤, the kidneys to the abysmal or water (Kan 坎) 腎為坎, and the heart to the clinging (Li 離) 心為離. More importantly, it constructs a vertical generative sequence of bodily hexagrams: the abdomen as Wuji (the undifferentiated), the navel as Taiji, the kidneys as the Two Modes (Liangyi 兩儀), the four limbs as the Four Symbols (sixiang 四象), and the finger joints as the Eight Trigrams, which are further expanded into sixty-four hexagrams. During practice, through the changes of movements, practitioners simulate the reverse process of returning from the Eight Trigrams back to the Taiji, and ultimately to Wuji. This clearly resonates with the Daoist internal alchemical theory of “Daoist returning 返還”3.

3.2. Physical Movement and the Arising of Internal Breathing

The core of internal alchemy lies in the unity of internal spirit and “internal breathing”, as well as the unity of vital essence and energy. Similarly, the same holds true for Internal Boxing, whose combat sport emphasizes “the unity of form and spirit 形神”, the seamless unity of intention and physique. The goal is to achieve victory in combat by allowing “the mind to move and the form to follow 意動形隨, and the form to activate force 形至力發”. Therefore, in practice, particular emphasis is placed on the systematic training of “psychomotor 知覺運動”, which is both the foundation of body and mind coordination and the key to transforming force 勁力. The Yangshi Taiji Boxing Laopu 楊氏太極拳老譜 makes a distinction between “action” (dong 動, manifest movement) and “movement” (yun 運, inner circulation), as well as between “knowledge” (zhi 知, conceptual cognition) and “perception” (jue 覺, the refined inner perception). It emphasizes that the key to cultivation lies in transcending the “knowledge” of “action”, deepening into the “perception” of “movement”. This level of “perceiving inner movement”, i.e., jue-yun, in fact, points to the unity of the internal mind-spirit and “internal breathing” (Wang 1991, p. 116).

Intention Boxing theory provides evidence for us to understand the meaning of jue-yun. For example, as an Intention Boxing expert, Guo Yunshen 郭雲深 (1829–1900) stated, “The Dao of intention boxing is nothing more than the spirit and the vital energy. 形意拳術之道無他，神氣二者而已” (L. Sun 2001, p. 287). It explicitly points out that both share the same foundation of “unity of the vital essence and energy”. However, their paths to realization differ: Internal alchemy cultivates this unity through breath regulation, whereas Intention Boxing achieves it “through the regulation of breath via the body movements of the hands and feet 以手足動作調息” (L. Sun 2001, p. 304). He further explained that the “connection between upper and lower breathing 上下相連” in the boxing principles actually refers to the connection between the upper breathing (the oral and nasal breathing) with the lower breathing (the vital energy or internal breathing) (L. Sun 2001, p. 294). Thus, the relationship between bodily movement and internal breathing is comparable to that between ordinary oral and nasal breathing and internal breathing. The former, bodily movements, such as mouth-and-nose breathing, are relatively coarse and superficial, belonging to the inward as the root. In contrast, the latter is subtle and slow, belonging inward to the root of vital energy of life. As Li Yaxuan 李雅軒 (1894–1976) stated, “The principle of breathing in Taiji Boxing stirring the internal breathing within it to harmonize with the continuous flow of movement 鼓蕩丹田內息，以與連綿不斷之動作相應” (Zhang and Zhang 2009, p. 21). It embodies the state of “perceiving inner movement,” which clearly grasps the essence of Internal Boxing.

This explains why Internal Boxing places such great emphasis on “effortlessness 不用力”. The fundamental reason is that when a practitioner reaches the state in which mind and spirit are united with the internal breathing, he naturally transcends attachment to external bodily movements, thereby freeing himself from the constraints of dualistic categories such as hardness and softness, speed and slowness, and largeness and smallness. As Guo Yunshen 郭雲深 remarked, “When the spirit and the vital energy are merged into one and transformed into emptiness, the body naturally becomes as light as a feather.” 將神氣合一，化成虛空者，自然身輕如羽” (L. Sun 2001, p. 294). This reveals the true meaning of the concept of “effortlessness”. It does not mean deliberately refraining from exerting effort, but rather entering a state of natural transformation beyond the form through the interpenetration of the spirit and the vital energy. Internal alchemy advocates “forgetting the form in order to nurture the vital energy 忘形以養氣”, while Internal Boxing realizes this through the path of “uniting with the vital energy in order to transcend the form 合氣以忘形”.

Many Internal Boxing experts have a deep understanding of this principle and therefore advocate starting directly from the practice of internal breathing. When Sun Lutang 孫祿堂 discussed the “Infinite Style” of the Eight Trigrams Palm Boxing, he advocated “standing still and maintaining the center 靜立守中”, which might lead to the experience: “Within the abdomen there truly exists a root of utmost emptiness and nothingness, from which the vital energy of the Infinite arises. This vital energy is like a mist—dense and vaporous, indistinguishable between black and white. Its form resembles rushing water—turbulent and chaotic, with no clear separation between purity and turbidity.” 腹內確有至虛至無之根，而能生出無極之氣也。其氣似霧，氤氤氳氳黑白不辨。形如湍水，混混沌沌，清濁不分” (L. Sun 2001, p. 134). This description vividly captures Dantian’s experience of the initial birth of internal breathing. Similarly, when discussing Taiji Boxing, Sun Lutang also pointed out that the “ultimate beginning 起點之極” refers to the internal breathing, which arises from the body’s neutral state (L. Sun 2001, p. 377). Significantly, He equated the starting point of Taiji Boxing with the “primordial gate (xuanguan 玄關)” of internal alchemy, clearly pointing to the place where internal breathing originates. It is both the foundation of boxing and the source of internal alchemy.

3.3. “Transforming Essence into Vital Energy 炼精化炁” in Internal Alchemy

The cultivation method of “uniting mind-spirit with form-energy” in Internal Boxing possesses the power to transform desire, enabling practitioners to enter a state of inner tranquility and concentration, thereby creating conditions for the generation and accumulation of primordial essence. When Sun Lutang’s practice skill reached the stage of transforming force 化勁, he personally experienced a state of deep tranquility, where “spirit and vital energy fixed 神氣一定” and “mind completely settled 心中一定”. In this state, he has experienced sensations such as “throbbing 萌動” and “wanting to release desire 欲泄” of primordial essence (L. Sun 2001, p. 328). This experience closely parallels the “right moment for cultivation (huozishi 活子時)” described in internal alchemy. Confronted with such physiological responses, Sun Lutang did not resort to the Daoist meditative methods of internal alchemy, but instead he employed the distinctive dynamic training of Internal Boxing to respond and refine them. This demonstrates the unique cultivating path of Internal Boxing practice: “seeking stillness through movement 以動求靜, and refining vital energy through form 以形煉氣”.

According to relevant records in The Essential Meaning of Boxing Practice and the Three Schools 練拳經驗及三派之精義 (L. Sun 2001, pp. 328–29), the above-mentioned methods can be summarized as follows. Firstly, the practitioner regulates and holds the primordial essence through mind and spirit, focusing intention on the dantian while using true intent to lift and stabilize the anal passage (gudao 穀道) and the Yinqiao 陰蹻 vessel. Secondly, by relying on the internal breathing generated through boxing movements, the practitioner refines the primordial essence concentrated by mind and spirit into vital energy—a process described as “digesting it by means of the breathing boxing practice”. Thirdly, such internal breathing is not only perceptible during training but also continues to manifest in states of standing still, walking, and even sleeping, thereby allowing the refinement of primordial essence across different bodily conditions. Fourthly, once the primordial essence has been transformed into vital energy, the practice does not, as in orthodox inner alchemy, pursue the further union of spirit and vital energy to form the so-called “true seed 真種”. Instead, the generated vital energy of yang 陽氣 is circulated throughout the body, with the aim of strengthening health and enhancing martial efficacy. This orientation marks the fundamental distinction between his method of refinement and traditional internal alchemy practice. Other masters of Internal Boxing likewise reported comparable experiences of cultivation. For example, Li Yaxuan 李雅軒 emphasizes the necessity to achieve a state of “mind and body tranquility 泰然” during practice, one of the hallmarks of which is the spontaneous flow of sweet saliva 津液 from the mouth (Zhang and Zhang 2009, p. 18). According to internal alchemy theory, sweet saliva in the mouth signifies the birth of subtle yang 微陽 and the rise in kidney water 腎水, an outward sign of the awakening of internal vital energy and the balance of water and fire 水火既濟. Reaching such a state in boxing practice indicates that the practitioner has already initiated and refined the activation of subtle yang, thereby attaining a level of bodily–mental harmony and smooth circulation of vital energy. What Li Yaxuan 李雅軒 emphasized was precisely as follows: through martial practice, the inner process of vital transformation (qihua 氣化) is set into motion, leading from movement into stillness and ultimately arriving at the very physiological transformation that is central to inner alchemy.

To sum up, Internal Boxing is not only a combat art, but also a practical system integrated with body and mind practice. Its practice emphasizes “the unity of internal spirit and circulating breath”. On the one hand, this helps practitioners gather and concentrate their thoughts, distancing themselves from distracting desires; on the other hand, as the mind-spirit gradually settles into harmony with form and energy, it enters a state of tranquility, thereby creating the conditions for the generation of primordial essence. However, unlike internal alchemy practice, Internal Boxing lacks the subsequent step of “using spirit to [unite the] vital energy 炁”, making it difficult to further condense the “body’s neutral state” and achieve pre-heaven transformation. The vital essence and energy practiced is primarily used to nourish the post-heaven body and mind, which not only strengthens the body and prolongs life, but also helps improve the quality of strength and Chinese combat techniques. It is in this sense that Internal Boxing demonstrates its unique practice approach and values. While not aiming at the ultimate goal of seeking the Dao of achieving immortality 求道成仙, it nonetheless forges a practical path between the martial arts (wu 武) and the Dao, cultivating tranquility through movement 以動養靜, and achieving the Dao through martial arts 以武入道. This technical integration does not merely enhance combat efficacy but, as explored in the final section, reconfigures the broader objectives of Daoist medical bodily practice.

4. Internal Boxing and the Evolution of the Daoist Medical Paradigm of Bodily Practice

Although Internal Boxing shares deep historical roots with traditional Chinese daoyin techniques, its successful integration of the internal alchemy technique of “desire transmutation “marked a fundamental point of divergence. Historically, there were also other daoyin methods that dealt with the use of sexual energy, such as the Classic of Muscle-Tendon Transformation (Yijin Jing 易筋經). However, these techniques generally channeled sexual energy towards strengthening the physical body, aiming not to “return to its pre-heaven state or primordial essence 返本還源” and to undergo true refinement and sublimation. This is precisely where the core distinction between Internal Boxing and such practices lies. The “desire transmutation” technique practiced by Internal Boxing practitioners represents a profoundly sophisticated method for working with sexual desire. Instead of suppressing desire or “releasing desire”, this approach transforms the most fundamental stratum of life energy into higher forms of vitality energy through an intricate set of body and mind techniques. This unique, transformative efficacy greatly expanded the therapeutic horizons of Daoist medicine in addressing body and mind imbalances. More crucially, the technique rests upon the view of “double body 雙重身體觀”—that is, the distinction between “the physical body of post-heaven energy 後天形質之身” and “the primordial vital body of pre-heaven energy 先天元氣之身”. This dual-body framework provides Daoist medicine with a diagnostic and therapeutic paradigm that directly accesses the very primordial vital energy of life itself. Guided by this understanding, Daoist healing is no longer limited to regulating the “post-heaven vital energy and blood”; however, it can directly engage in the transformation and consolidation of “pre-heaven primordial vital energy”, thereby achieving fundamental healing and transcendence.

4.1. From the Regulation of Qi/Blood to the Transformation of Sexual Energy

Compared with the Eight Pieces of Brocade (Baduanjin 八段錦), which is one of the most widespread and representative traditional daoyin practices, Internal Boxing has clearly surpassed the basic daoyin paradigm of “guiding the flow of vital energy (qi 氣) to create an internal balance 導氣令和 and stretching the body to effect external somatic flexibility 引體令柔”. In other words, Internal Boxing has realized a paradigmatic shift towards “refining primordial vital energy 煉化元氣 and transforming body and mind 轉換身心”.

In terms of training methods, the Eight Pieces of Brocade emphasizes accuracy and extension in movement, using external form to guide internal vital energy. It also requires precise coordination of breath with movement (e.g., inhaling when rising, exhaling when lowering, inhaling when opening, exhaling when closing) to promote the smooth circulation of vital energy and blood. In addition, it advocates gently placing the attention on the body or the energy center (Dantian 丹田), aiming to relax the mind and spirit. This form of training does not directly engage with sexual energy. Its health effects are primarily achieved through overall regulation of vital energy and blood; therefore, its influence on desire is indirect (for example, calming the mind naturally reduces desire). In contrast, all movements and breathing in Internal Boxing revolve around the pulsation 鼓蕩 and transformation 運化 within the energy center, aiming at the “refining or transforming essence into vital energy 煉精化炁”. At the same time, it seeks an advanced state of “perceiving inner movement”, i.e., jue-yun, in which external bodily sensations gradually deepen into the inner perception of vital energy, ultimately reaching the formless “unity of the vital essence and energy 神氣合一”. Thus, Internal Boxing actively involves the transformation of sexual energy—it is a highly internalized system designed to awaken and transmute the deepest stratum of vital energy, primordial essence (yuanjing 元精).

As far as the ultimate goal is concerned, the Eight Pieces of Brocade focuses on maintaining and restoring the health of the post-heaven physical body, aiming at unblocking vital energy and blood, strengthening sinews and bones, and harmonizing the internal “Zang-fu organs and meridians 臟腑經絡” system. Internal Boxing, however, goes beyond longevity and disease prevention to pursue the restoration of “the primordial essence, numinous vitality of pre-heaven energy”, seeking the fundamental transformation of body and mind and the full activation of life’s latent potential. In other words, while the practitioners of the Eight Pieces of Brocade intend to strengthen physical fitness, Internal Boxing aspires to form a “transcendent adept”. Integrating self-cultivation and Chinese combat techniques (jiji 技擊), it ultimately points towards an all-encompassing elevation of the human condition4.

Therefore, Internal Boxing involves a profound “paradigm revolution”. It inherits the external forms of traditional daoyin exercises, but its practical methods and ultimate aims are shaped by the incorporation of internal alchemy’s core techniques, such as “desire transmutation”. It no longer confines itself to regulating and repairing the level of “post-heaven vital energy and blood”, but instead opens a transformative path that directly engages the “pre-heaven primordial vital energy”, consciously refining and transmuting the deepest strata of life energy.

4.2. The Subtle Art of Desire Transmutation

Internal Boxing takes the transmutation of sexual energy as one of its core cultivation methods, which inevitably involves addressing the issue of sexual desire. Sexual desire is not only the foundation of life’s continuation of human beings, but also the fundamental basis for human propagation. However, when its presence interferes with daily life, hinders the attainment of one’s goals, disperses mental focus, or restricts bodily and spiritual freedom, it then emerges as a “problem” requiring guidance and resolution. In this regard, internal alchemy demonstrates an exceptional advantage, distinct from that of other cultural traditions. Correspondingly, Internal Boxing, through its assimilation of internal alchemy techniques for “desire transmutation”, has similar functions and characteristics.

When confronted with sexual desire, people typically adopt attitudes of indulgence, prohibition, or moderation. Indulgence in desire may lead to depletion of vital energy and physical exhaustion, which even threatens social order; hence, it is clearly rejected by the wise. Indian religious philosophy, particularly Buddhism, tends towards strict asceticism or prohibition. For example, the Buddhist practice of “contemplation on the impure” (Patikulamanasikara 不淨觀) involves continuous meditation on the impure aspects of the body to cultivate revulsion towards objects of desire, extending this revulsion into lived experience to suppress sensual craving. This is an extreme form of prohibition rooted in religious or ethical motivations. However, when carried to excess, it may endanger the continuity of human reproduction and, by repressing natural needs, give rise to various psychological and physiological problems. In contrast, Chinese Confucianists oppose extreme abstinence, promoting a moderate and temperate attitude instead5. Ancient physicians in China also upheld similar views on moderation. For example, Sun Simiao 孫思邈 (541 or 581?–682) explicitly recommended different frequencies of sexual activities for people of different ages in his Prescriptions Worth a Thousand Gold for Every Emergency Nourishing Life 千金要方·養性: “At twenty years old, one emission every four days; At thirty, one every eight days; At forty, one every sixteen days; At fifty, one every twenty days; At sixty, one should preserve the essence and do not ejaculate. If he remains strong, once a month is permissible.” “人年二十者，四日一泄；三十者，八日一泄；四十者，十六日一泄；五十者，二十日一泄；六十者，閉精勿泄，若體力猶壯者，一月一泄” (S. Sun 2022, p. 965). It obviously reflects a health philosophy centered on the conservation of sexual essence through moderation.

In fact, whether through indulgence, prohibition, or moderation, all these approaches arise from the recognition that sexual desire has already impacted one’s daily life. People attempt to eliminate this influence through prohibition, to release it through indulgence, or to rationalize it through moderation. However, we may ask: Is it possible to transform desire before it actually affects the mind and body? Furthermore, could one retain the physiological responses that accompany desire while discarding the mental “desire” that follows? Based on the foregoing analysis, the answer is affirmative. The practice of “transforming essence into vital energy 煉精化炁” in internal alchemy offers a systematic method for sexual transformation, and Internal Boxing has thoroughly integrated it both in theory and methodology. This is not about suppressing desire, but fundamentally dissolving the conditions for its occurrence—allowing the practitioner to preserve physiological vitality while maintaining mental freedom. Thus, Internal Boxing is not merely a physical technique but also a practical philosophy for the transformation and redirection of desire, thereby extending the therapeutic scope of Daoist medicine.

4.3. The Conception of the Dual Body and the Cultivation of Primordial Vitality

More importantly, the great emphasis that Internal Boxing places on the transmutation of sexual energy contains a fundamental premise: human life is an organic unity formed by the fusion of “invisible essence and vital energy 無形精氣” and “the visible physical body 有形身體”, with the former constituting the essence and source of the latter. Sun Lutang wrote in The Name of Taiji Boxing 太極拳之名稱: “From the moment a person is endowed with life and nature, the primordial vital energy that nurtures vitality is already stored within the body. It neither leans forward nor backward, neither inclines nor deviates; it is harmonious yet unmoving, utterly good and perfectly balanced. This is called true yang or true inner essence, also known as the vital energy of central harmony 中和之氣. In ordinary times, this vital energy permeates the four limbs and moistens the hundred bones within. “人自賦性含生之後，本藏有養生之元氣，不仰不俯，不偏不倚，和而不流，至善至極，是為真陽，所謂中和之氣是也。其氣平時洋溢於四體之中，浸潤於百骸之內” (L. Sun 2001, p. 180). He pointed out that human beings are endowed with a self-sufficient system of life maintenance, whose core dynamic arises from the primordial energy referred to as “true yang” or “the vital energy of central harmony”. This energy diffuses throughout the body, forming a complete life structure together with the limbs and bones. Sun Lutang’s use of “true yang” to denote the fundamental energy of life clearly implies a deep connection between this vital force and sexual energy.

In The Preface to the Study of Taiji Boxing 太極拳學自序, Sun Lutang further elaborated: “Human beings are a form that unites the pre-heaven and the post-heaven.” (L. Sun 2001, p. 177). This statement emphasizes that humans are not merely composed of “the primordial vital body of pre-heaven energy 先天元氣” or of “the physical body of post-heaven energy 後天形質”. Instead, they are a highly integrated, inseparable unity of both. This view of life is consistent with the principles of internal alchemy. As previously discussed, internal alchemy also regards human beings as a dual existence formed by the “post-heaven visible physical body 有形之身” and the “pre-heaven one vital energy 先天一炁”. Once life takes form, the “pre-heaven vital energy 先天一炁” continuously transforms into primordial essence, sustaining the survival and functioning of the post-heaven physical body. It is precisely on the basis of this mind–body conception that Internal Boxing developed a system of cultivation integrating daoyin with refinement and transformation practices.

Within this theoretical framework of bodily existence, formless vital energy is regarded as the more fundamental essence of life. Consequently, whether in martial training or in practices of health preservation and healing, Internal Boxing takes the refinement of vital energy and the cultivation of spirit 煉氣養神 as its core objective. As Sun Lutang observed: “This boxing (Taiji Boxing) borrows the post-heaven form of the body, and does not rely on post-heaven strength. It alternates between movement and rest, allowing for pure naturalness. It does not emphasize blood and vital energy, but rather focuses on refining vital energy through nourishing the spirit.” 此拳(太極拳)在假後天之形，不用後天之力，一動一靜，純任自然，不尚血氣，意在煉氣化神耳” (L. Sun 2001, p. 178). This suggests that Taiji Boxing is essentially an introspective practice system of “abandoning form to seek spirit 舍形求意” and “refining vital energy through nourishing the spirit”. Although it utilizes post-heaven body movements as a medium, its fundamental purpose is to transcend physique and brute force (蠻力), mobilizing and refining primordial vital energy, and ultimately realizing an exalted state of physical and mental sublimation. On the level of health and healing, Internal Boxing surpasses ordinary daoyin. It does not stop at regulating post-heaven qi/blood, but aims at supplementing pre-heaven primordial vital energy, representing a fundamental elevation from “treating symptoms” to “strengthening the root”. For example, Sun Lutang 孫祿堂 stated that “human illness and weakness arise from the gradual depletion of the pre-heaven primordial vital energy 先天元氣漸消”. Therefore, it is necessary to “develop boxing arts in order to restore this primordial essence, numinous vitality of pre-heaven energy 更發明拳術，以求複其虛靈之氣” (L. Sun 2001, p. 177). Precisely, because pre-heaven primordial energy is more fundamental than the post-heaven physical body, the Internal Boxing’s method of health cultivation—which directly targets the root of vital energy and refines the pre-heaven primordial essence—demonstrates a deeper and more essential healing value than ordinary therapeutic approaches. This bodily practice in Daoist medicine not only reconstructs the cognitive paradigm of life but also promotes a fundamentally holistic approach to health preservation and healing.

In conclusion, traditional Daoist daoyin utilizes gentle physical movements and breathing techniques to promote digestion, circulation, and other systemic functions, ultimately achieving health preservation and healing. Distinct from ordinary daoyin, however, Internal Boxing places greater emphasis on the transformation of sexual desires, thus touching upon the deep primordial vital of life. Furthermore, Internal Boxing views the human body as a unity of pre-heaven primordial vital energy and post-heaven physical form. By cultivating vital energy, Internal Boxing aims to transcend physical constraints and restore the pre-heaven state of spiritual emptiness. It is not merely a martial or therapeutic art, but rather a comprehensive discipline of self-cultivation that integrates body and mind while transforming desire. In this conduct, it opens up a more fundamental path of healing within traditional Daoist daoyin.

5. Conclusions

The foregoing systematic analysis of Internal Boxing’s absorption and integration of internal alchemy’s techniques for “transforming desire” reveals its pivotal role in the evolution of the bodily practice paradigms in Daoist medicine. The study demonstrates that Internal Boxing inherits the fundamental principle of traditional daoyin, ”guiding the vital energy to bring harmony and leading the body to attain suppleness”. Moreover, by incorporating internal alchemy’s methods for transforming sexual energy, it achieves a paradigm shift from the mere regulation of vital energy and blood to a fundamental transformation of body, mind, and spirit.

As a conclusion, I attempt to address an implicit question: why is it that after the Tang and Song dynasties—despite the widespread exposure of various daoyin techniques to internal alchemy thought—most of them did not, like Internal Boxing, develop a conscious theory and technique of “desire transmutation”? I argue that this is closely related to another distinctive aspect of Internal Boxing: it is not only used for health preservation and healing, but also serves a combat function. Traditional boxing arts aim to overcome opponents primarily through two core factors, namely, strength and speed. However, both of these are largely constrained by one’s pre-heaven endowment, and post-heaven training can hardly achieve fundamental breakthroughs. Internal Boxing, by contrast, takes a radically different path. It explicitly champions the boxing ideal of “using softness to overcome hardness 以弱勝強, and using slowness to defeat speed 以慢打快”, thereby distinguishing itself from conventional boxing systems.

Firstly, the key to realizing this ideal lies in transforming the very nature of strength, not pursuing quantitative increases in force, but enhancing its internal quality. It is essential to integrate scattered, clumsy force 拙力 into a state of highly coordinated, whole-body power known as integrated strength 整勁 or internal strength 內勁. To generate such refined power, one must look beyond the ordinary physiological systems of respiration, circulation, and digestion to seek a more fundamental source of energy. This inquiry naturally points to the foundation of vital life energy, i.e., the reproductive system. In Internal Boxing training, the cultivation of integrated strength emphasizes the waist and hips as the central governing axis, through which force is transmitted and distributed throughout the body. Anatomically, the waist and hips are closely adjacent to the reproductive system, and their movement patterns, at a deeper energetic level, correspond precisely to the core process of “refining or transforming essence into vital energy 煉精化炁” in internal alchemy.

Secondly, as a complete system of cultivation, Internal Boxing confronts a fundamental paradox: how can one, amid long-term and even intense physical practice, avoid the depletion of primordial vital energy while at the same time achieving the reinforcement and cultivation of pre-heaven primordial vitality energy (guben peiyuan 固本培元)? This question, which concerns the very foundation of the vitality and life-cultivation of martial artists, clearly lies beyond the scope of ordinary daoyin techniques or medical therapies. Internal alchemy, with its highly developed theories and comprehensive practices, oriented towards longevity and the exploration of life’s potential, thus offered the most direct and effective resource for reference.

Finally, from the perspective of the practitioner, ancient Internal Boxing masters were genuine combatants who often operated on the edge between life and death. This extreme existential pressure compelled them to transcend ordinary physical and psychological limits to explore and stimulate the deepest layers of human potential. Such an intense, life-and-death-driven pursuit of transformation is far beyond the reach of ordinary daoyin practitioners, which focuses merely on health cultivation. It is precisely this ultimate concern that drives Internal Boxing practitioners to draw deeply from the treasury of internal alchemy thought or theoretical system. They are not content with the regulation of “post-heaven qi/blood 後天氣血”; hence, they resolutely seek to re-actualize the potential of “pre-heaven primordial vital energy 先天元氣” through its symbolic and functional framework.