Search Results (247)

This study examines the evolution and integration of Buddhist architecture in East Asia and emphasizes the preservation of indigenous building traditions by adapting pre-Buddhist architectural typologies, vernacular construction techniques, and localized worship practices. In addition, this study highlights the adaptive transformation of Indian Buddhist structures as they incorporate regional architectural forms, resulting in distinct monumental styles that had a profound symbolic significance. By introducing the concept of a cosmopolitan attitude, it underscores the dynamic coexistence and reciprocal influence of universalized and vernacular architectural traditions. The findings highlight the interplay between cultural universality and particularity, illustrating how architectural meaning and intention define the uniqueness of structures beyond their stylistic similarities. This study demonstrates that even when architectural forms appear similar, their function and underlying intent must be considered to fully comprehend their historical and cultural significance. Full article

This article examines the evolution and potential cross-cultural adaptations of the “Goddess of the Flaming Mouth”, Jvālāmukhī (Skt.) or Kha ‘bar ma (Tib.), in Indic and Tibetan traditions. A minor figure in medieval Hindu Tantras, Jvālāmukhī is today best known through her tangible manifestation as natural flames in a West Himalayan temple complex in the valley of Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, India. The gap between her sparse portrayal in Tantric texts and her enduring presence at this local “seat of power” (śakti pīṭha) raises questions regarding her historical development and sectarian affiliations. To address these questions, we examine mentions of Jvālāmukhī’s Tibetan counterpart, Kha ‘bar ma, across a wide range of textual sources: canonical Buddhist texts, original Tibetan works of the Bön and Buddhist traditions, and texts on sacred geography. Regarded as a queen of ghost spirits (pretas) and field protector (kṣetrapāla) in Buddhist sources, her portrayal in Bön texts contain archaic motifs that hint at autochthonous and/or non-Buddhist origins. The assessment of Indic material in conjunction with Tibetan texts point to possible transformations of the goddess across these culturally proximate Himalayan settings. In presenting and contextualizing these transitions, this article contributes critical data to ongoing efforts to map the development, adaptation, and localization of Tantric deities along the Indo-Tibetan interface. Full article

Lion Grove was established in 1342 during the Yuan Dynasty and is one of the four most famous classical gardens in China. It was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. Although Lion Grove is now regarded as a private garden representing the culture of Confucian scholars, it was originally a Chan Buddhist garden during its inception in the Yuan Dynasty. This study examines the natural landscapes of Lion Grove at its inception, focusing on four main aspects: the philosophy of nature, planning intent, creators, and the philosophical ideas they represent. Key findings include the following: Firstly, Lion Grove’s attitude towards nature is rooted in China’s indigenous culture, making it both a physical expression of Chan philosophy and a space reflecting the scholar–bureaucrats’ vision of an ideal landscape. Secondly, from the perspective of landscape planning, the Lion Grove of the Yuan Dynasty placed greater emphasis on natural elements compared to its modern counterpart, with rock landscapes serving as the core element throughout the garden. Thirdly, hermitic philosophy emerged as a significant cultural theme alongside Chan Buddhism during the Yuan Dynasty. Fourthly, the landscape elements of Lion Grove symbolize Chan Buddhist wisdom and the hermit’s idealism, with poetry playing a key role in conveying these cultural ideals, preserving the site’s early philosophical significance. Full article

During the 10th to 12th centuries, the Song, Liao, and Goryeo Dynasties and Japanese regimes in East Asia engaged in frequent activities of requesting and granting the Chinese Tripitaka (the Chinese Buddhist Canon), forming a distinctive diplomatic phenomenon termed “Tripitaka Diplomacy”. This paper examines the political and cultural dynamics underlying these cross-border interactions by analyzing the historical records of such activities among the polities. It also explores the multifaceted role of the Tripitaka in East Asian international relations, which transcended its religious significance to shape diplomatic strategies and power dynamics. Through this lens, this paper reveals the complexity of the East Asian international order during this period, emphasizing how the circulation of the Tripitaka served as both a cultural bridge and a tool for political negotiation. Full article

Most research on work addiction has focused on Western countries, often overlooking cultural and religious influences. This study examines work addiction in Sri Lanka, a predominantly Buddhist country, and explores whether gender and age moderate the relationship between religiosity and work addiction. A sample of 176 full-time employed Buddhists (66.5% women, mean age = 41.84 years) completed an online survey, including the International Work Addiction Scale and a self-rated religiosity measure. The prevalence of work addiction was around 10%, aligning with Western estimates. No direct link was found between religiosity and work addiction. However, age significantly moderated this relationship: among younger participants, higher religiosity was associated with lower work addiction, while in older participants it was linked to higher work addiction. Gender showed no moderating effect. These findings suggest that work addiction is prevalent even in cultural contexts emphasizing moderation and non-attachment. The age-related differences may reflect generational shifts in how religion is perceived and integrated into work life, as well as varying interpretations of Buddhist principles. This study highlights the importance of considering cultural and generational contexts when examining behavioral addictions like work addiction. Full article

This article considers the dilemma between advocating for a religion-based environmentalism in the Himalayas and recognising that the different cultural traditions in the region make a uniform religious environmentalism difficult to uphold. Conservationists often attempt to mobilise local communities for environmental protection by building on their religious and cultural beliefs. Yet, such forms of mobilisation tend to homogenise plural traditions by forcing them within a single fold. What is the way out of this dilemma? I offer some reflections, drawing on my empirical work in the Buddhist Himalayas, and focusing on the case studies of the yak and the black-necked crane respectively, two species which hold a special significance in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Examining these multispecies relations in Arunachal Pradesh reveal not only Buddhist values at work, but plural and evolving entanglements. The question, then, is not to see if the value is religious but if the value is more-than-human in its orientation, taking into account the entangled lives of human and non-human habitations. My broad argument is that an ethics of the environment need neither to be removed from religious ethics, nor enclosed by it. Rather than force environmental thought and behaviour into silos of particular religious traditions or conservation science paradigms, how can one see these as the function of plural habitations? Full article

Templestay programs in South Korea represent a unique convergence of Buddhist ritual, cultural immersion, and wellness tourism. While often treated as niche cultural experiences, their broader significance within sustainable wellness tourism remains underexplored. This study examines participant reflections from the Beomeosa Templestay program through thematic analysis of over 600 reviews sourced from TripAdvisor, Google Reviews, and handwritten guestbooks. Using a triangulated framework combining Grounded Theory, Symbolic Interactionism, and the Wellness Tourism Model, the research identifies four recurring experiential themes: spiritual development, emotional healing, cultural immersion, and conscious consumption. Findings reveal cross-cultural variations: non-Korean participants emphasized spiritual exploration and cultural learning, while Korean participants prioritized emotional renewal and reconnection with heritage. Yet, across all groups, participants reported transformative outcomes, including heightened clarity, inner calm, and enhanced self-awareness. These results suggest that Templestays serve as accessible, culturally grounded wellness retreats that align with rising global demand for intentional, mindful travel. This study contributes to sustainable tourism scholarship by framing Templestays as low-impact, spiritually resonant alternatives to commercialized wellness retreats. Practical recommendations are offered to expand participation while maintaining program authenticity and safeguarding the spiritual and cultural integrity of monastic hosts in an increasingly globalized wellness landscape. Full article

This study provides a comprehensive philological analysis of ten Old Uyghur manuscript fragments of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-sūtra (Lotus Sutra) in the Berlin Turfan Collection, while systematically examining all extant Old Uyghur Lotus Sutra manuscripts to establish a complete corpus for comparative analysis. By collating this complete corpus with Kumārajīva’s Chinese translation, this research demonstrates a typology of Old Uyghur Lotus Sutra fragments. It identifies at least two distinct translation lineages: (1) early translations (pre-10th century) exhibiting lexical and structural divergences indicative of Sogdian mediation or hybrid source traditions, and (2) late translations (11th–14th centuries) directly derived from the Chinese version, characterized by syntactic fidelity and a standardized terminology. Through comparative textual analysis, orthographic scrutiny, and terminological cross-referencing, this paper aims to reconstruct the historical trajectory of the Lotus Sutra’s transmission. In addition, it discusses some facts indicating linguistic and cultural contact between the Sogdians and the progressive alignment of Uyghur Buddhist texts with Chinese Buddhist traditions. Full article

In the 19th century, the British archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham identified the remains of an unidentified Buddhist monastery at Jamāl Gaṛhī, an ancient site located approximately 13 km from present-day Mardān, Pakistan. Subsequent excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India between 1920 and 1921 unearthed a schist inscription dated to the year “359”. Heinrich Lüders, the renowned German Indologist and epigraphist, attributed this inscription to the Dharmaguptaka sect/school. Despite this early attribution, the Monastery’s precise sectarian characteristics have remained largely unexplored in later scholarship. This article reevaluates the site’s sectarian identity by employing a “ground-to-text” methodology that integrates archaeological evidence with textual analysis, with a particular focus on the Chinese translation of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. Through this comparative framework, this study seeks to elucidate the religious ideas reflected in the site’s material culture and their relationship with Dharmaguptaka disciplinary thought. The analysis encompasses the architectural remnants of the stūpa excavated by Cunningham and the “Fasting Buddha” statuary, now preserved in the National Museum of Pakistan, the British Museum, and other sites, situating these artifacts within the distinctive visual and contemplative traditions linked to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. By integrating architectural, sculptural, textual, and epigraphic materials, this article provides a nuanced understanding of sectarian developments at Jamāl Gaṛhī and argues that an explicit emphasis on the ‘Middle Way’ ideology constituted a defining feature of the Dharmaguptaka tradition during this period. Full article

From the mid-Ming to early Qing dynasties, Mount Jizu 雞足山 in Yunnan achieved unexpected prominence within China’s Buddhist sacred landscape—an event of regional, national, and transnational significance. Employing an explicit comparative lens that juxtaposes Jizu with China’s core-region sacred sites like Mount Wutai and Emei, this study investigates the timing, regional dynamics, institutional mechanisms, and causal drivers behind the rapid ascent. Rejecting teleological narratives, it traces the mountain’s trajectory through four developmental phases to address critical historiographical questions: how did a peripheral Yunnan site achieve national prominence within a remarkably compressed timeframe? By what mechanisms could its sacred authority be constructed to inspire pilgrimages even across vast distances? Which historical agents and processes orchestrated these transformations, and how did the mountain’s symbolic meaning shift dynamically over time? Departing from earlier scholarship that privileges regional and secular frameworks, this work not only rebalances the emphasis on religious dimensions but also expands the analytical scope beyond regional confines to situate Mount Jizu within national and transnational frameworks. Eventually, by analyzing the structural, institutional, and agential dynamics—spanning local, imperial, and transnational dimensions—this study reveals how the mountain’s sacralization emerged from the convergence of local agency, acculturative pressures, state-building imperatives, late-Ming Buddhist revival, literati networks, and the strategic mobilization of symbolic capital. It also reveals that Mount Jizu was not a static sacred site but a dynamic arena of contestation and negotiation, where competing claims to spiritual authority and cultural identity were perpetually redefined. Full article

Guomari fortress in eastern Qinghai Province exemplifies vernacular architecture shaped by multiethnic interaction, environmental adaptation, and localized defense strategies. Originally a Ming Dynasty military-agricultural outpost, it evolved into a Tu ethnic settlement. Fieldwork, including architectural surveys and spatial analysis, identified a three-tiered defensive system: (1) strategic use of terrain and rammed-earth walls; (2) labyrinthine alleys with L-, T-, and cross-shaped intersections; and (3) interconnected rooftops forming elevated circulation routes. Courtyards are categorized into single-line, L-shaped, U-shaped, and fully enclosed layouts, reflecting adaptations to terrain, ritual functions, and thermal needs. Architectural features such as thick loam-coated walls and flat roofs demonstrate climatic adaptation, while the integration of Han timber frameworks, Tibetan prayer halls, and Tu decorative elements reveals cultural convergence. Traditional craftsmanship, including carved wooden scripture blocks and tsampa-based murals, is embedded within domestic and ritual spaces. The fortress’s circulation patterns mirror Tibetan Buddhist cosmology, with mandala-like alleys and rooftop circumambulation routes. These findings offer insights into vernacular resilience and inform conservation strategies for multiethnic fortified settlements. Full article

This paper aims to juxtapose bodhisattvas, awakened beings recognized in various Buddhist traditions and contemporary philosophies, as viewed through different lenses: as personified symbols, idealistic visions, mystical manifestations, naturalized sentient beings, and integral visions. Specific attention is given to the contrasting bodhisattva motivations and ideals articulated in Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism as well as secularized psychospiritual–philosophical Western conceptions in neurophysicalism (naturalized bodhisattva) and participatory spirituality and theory (integral bodhisattva). The paradox of the traditional bodhisattva is to liberate oneself and all sentient beings by ending suffering and to act compassionately while realizing emptiness (Skt., śūnyatā), though with different conceptions undergirding ultimate realization. The paradoxical nature of bodhisattvas is discussed in regard to illusional ideation, moral agency, mystical nature, idealized devotion, and naturalized form. The ethical underpinnings of the traditional Buddhist bodhisattva notions and non-Buddhist ethics of Western bodhisattva conceptions are critically examined. Finally, the Buddhist and secular morals of bodhisattvas are discussed in the context of the moral relativism of the Post-Truth culture in the United States. Full article

For the half-century following the armistice halting the Korean War (1950–1953), the immense loss of Korea’s Buddhist cultural heritage during the conflict has remained largely unexamined by scholars and historians, not only because of the topic’s immense scope and sensitivity but also the dearth of accurate and objective information. Thus, the research and resulting publications launched by Jogye Order’s Ministry of Culture in 2003 provide an invaluable and comprehensive survey of the hundreds of Buddhist temples and thousands of related cultural assets lost or damaged during the war. These efforts, however, have faced numerous difficulties. The ROK government made almost no official attempts to survey and catalog the damage sustained by the nation’s Buddhist temples during the war or its aftermath. Instead, by necessity, the Jogye Order’s surveys rely heavily on firsthand accounts of survivors, many of whom have since passed away, that were recorded often many decades after the war itself. The temple property records compiled by the Japanese Colonial Government likewise provide an important source for Jogye Order researchers in determining which temple assets were destroyed or lost during the conflict. However, in many instances, these records are incomplete or only note the names and numbers of assets that are now lost. Nor are such records insightful regarding what became of such assets but only indicate their current absence. Fortunately, over recent decades, the Jogye Order archivists have invested significant time and effort into digitizing surviving historical records and miscellanea recovered from individual temples. Full article

This study examines the symbolic ambiguity of Buddhist robes in the Heian period, focusing particularly on their representation in The Tale of Genji. While Buddhist monastic garments traditionally signify religious renunciation, they also functioned as fashion items regulated by strict social norms. Through an analysis of Heian-era dress codes and deviations from them, as well as literary portrayals of robes associated with ordination scenes, this study reveals that robes embodied not only religious aspirations but also worldly attachments. Literary depictions highlight the tension between formal religious identity and persistent human desires, demonstrating how Buddhist robes served not only as religious symbols but also as mediators between spiritual ideals and secular emotions. By examining robes as visual and emotional media within a broader cultural and historical framework, this paper argues that Buddhist robes during the Heian period symbolized the complex intersection of salvation and desire. Ultimately, this study sheds light on how religious symbols, rather than representing pure spiritual transcendence, reveal the enduring contradictions inherent in human nature. Full article

Inheriting a tradition of religious tolerance from the Inner Asian Steppe, the Mongol Yuan Empire elevated Buddhism to a pivotal role in unifying its multiethnic and culturally diverse domain, with Tengriist ideology serving as the political foundation for these Buddhist veneration policies. The ruling class of the Yuan dynasty practiced a complex interaction between religion and political unity through the institutionalization of the cult of writing, printing, and reading the Buddhist Canon. Specifically, the Yuan dynasty established specialized government offices to mobilize elites from Mongolian, Han Chinese, Goryeo, and other ethnic groups for the construction of a multilingual Buddhist Canon. They copied the scriptures with gold and silver ink in Chinese, Tibetan, Uyghur, and other languages. Participants in scripture copying were rewarded or granted official positions. In this way, they achieved the goal of enlisting local elites, the cohesion of the community’s beliefs, and enhanced the unity of the local elites. By subsidizing the writing and reading of Buddhist classics, the Yuan rulers succeeded in constructing a space of identity at the level of material culture and facilitated cultural interaction and political integration among various social groups such as the Mongols, ethnic groups, and Han Chinese. Through state-sponsored scripture carving and recitation activities, the Yuan rulers cultivated a shared identity in the material culture sphere, facilitating cultural exchange and political integration across the Mongolians, the Han Chinese, and other ethnic communities. However, the effectiveness of state unification was significantly constrained by the Mongolian rulers’ policy of ethnic segregation, central–local conflict, and the high concentration of social wealth in the Buddhist communities. Full article