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Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2

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A special issue of Vaccines (ISSN 2076-393X). This special issue belongs to the section "COVID-19 Vaccines and Vaccination".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2023) | Viewed by 18872

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Dr. Angela Stufano

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DIM Section of Occupational Medicine "EC Vigliani", Università degli studi di Bari Aldo Moro, 70121 Bari, Italy
Interests: immunology; occupational autoimmune diseases; zoonotic viruses seroprevalence in occupational setting

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Human coronaviruses (HCoVs), which emerge periodically worldwide, pose a threat to human health as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS's-CoV-2) disease called COVID-19. Despite much research around the world, the immune response induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection is a central issue that remains unclear. From the earliest days of the pandemic, it has been evident that patients respond differently to SARS-CoV-2 infection, varying from no symptoms to the need for hospitalization because of it. Finding the explanation for this variability was the main goal of COVID-19 research. How the immune system responds to viral infection - depending on age, sex, viral load, genetics, and other known and unknown variables - largely defines the course of the disease. Successful elimination of the virus from cured patients indicates the presence of adequate adaptive immune cells, as well as immune regulatory molecules and neutralizing antibodies. However, impairment of the adaptive immune response, along with hyperactivation of the innate immune system, can cause severe disease symptoms in COVID-19 patients. Several scientific studies demonstrate the occurrence of autoinflammatory/autoimmune phenomena in patients with COVID-19, such as antiphospholipid syndrome, autoimmune cytopenia, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and Kawasaki disease, suggesting that the heterogeneity of virus-induced disorders results from molecular mimicry phenomena between the virus and human proteins. Furthermore, to date, while there is evidence of both B-cell and memory T-cell immune responses in individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2, as well as in vaccinated persons, clear correlates of protective immunity have yet to be defined.

Therefore, it is time to welcome contributions for this special issue of Vaccines, "Immune response against SARS-CoV-2." The goal is to provide comprehensive information on all aspects of research related to the immune response against SARS-CoV-2 .

This special issue seeks all types of manuscripts (e.g., reviews, research articles, and short communications) on the immune response in individuals infected or vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2. Both basic and applied research papers that aim to improve the understanding of the immune response against SARS-CoV-2, short- and long-term effects of host immune responses to SARS-CoV-2, improved diagnostic methods, vaccination-related immune response, and intervention strategies for the prevention and management of COVID-19-related autoimmune reactions are welcome.

We cordially invite you to contribute to this special issue to advance our knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 and to discover together the means to overcome the pandemic.

I look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Angela Stufano
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Vaccines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

immune response
adapative immunity
vaccinations
molecular mimicry
T-cells immune response
autoimmunity

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 1586 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Immune Persistence against SARS-CoV-2 after Primary and Booster Immunization in Humans: A Large-Scale Prospective Cohort Study

by Juan Li, Hui Xie, Weixin Chen, Meng Chen, Shuang Bai, Wei Zhao, Tao Zhou, Pei Gao, Lichi Zhang, Quanyi Wang, Xinghuo Pang, Chun Huang and Jiang Wu

Vaccines 2022, 10(10), 1677; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10101677 - 8 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1438

Abstract

Amid the ongoing global COVID-19 pandemic, limited literature exists on immune persistence after primary immunization and the immunogenic features of booster vaccines administered at different time intervals. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the immune attenuation of neutralizing antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 wild-type strain, and Delta and Omicron variants 12 months after the primary administration of the COVID-19 inactivated vaccine and evaluate the immune response after a booster administration at different time intervals. A total of 514 individuals were followed up after primary immunization and were vaccinated with a booster. Neutralizing antibodies against the wild-type strain and Delta and Omicron variant spike proteins were measured using pseudovirus neutralization assays. The geometric mean titers (GMTs) after the primary and booster immunizations were 12.09 and 61.48 for the wild-type strain, 11.67 and 40.33 for the Delta variant, and 8.51 and 29.31 for the Omicron variant, respectively. The GMTs against the wild-type strain declined gradually during the 12 months after the primary immunization, and were lower against the two variants. After implementing a booster immunization with a 6 month interval, the GMTs against the wild-type strain were higher than those obtained beyond the 7 month interval; however, the GMTs against the two variants were not statistically different across 3–12 month intervals. Overall, SARS-CoV-2 variants showed remarkable declines in immune persistence, especially against the Omicron variant. The booster administration interval could be shortened to 3 months in endemic areas of the Omicron variant, whereas an appropriate prolonging of the booster administration interval did not affect the booster immunization effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2)

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18 pages, 1150 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Immune Response to Heterologous ChAdOx1/BNT162b2 Vaccination against COVID-19: Evaluation of the anti-RBD Specific IgG Antibodies Titers and Interferon Gamma Release Assay (IGRA) Test Results

by Marzena Zalewska, Wiktoria Fus, Adam Konka, Karolina Wystyrk, Aneta Bochenek, Hanna Botor, Martyna Fronczek, Joanna Zembala-John and Brygida Adamek

Vaccines 2022, 10(9), 1546; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10091546 - 16 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1926

Abstract

This study aimed to assess the magnitude of anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin G (IgG) titers and Interferon-Gamma Release Assay (IGRA) test results following administration of booster BNT162b2 in 48 ChAd-primed participants (vaccination schedule: ChAd/ChAd/BNT). Whole blood samples were collected: first, before and second, 21 days after the booster dose. The IgG level was measured using chemiluminescent immunoassay; the intensity of the T-cell response—IFNγ concentration—was assessed using IGRA test. At 21 days after the booster, all subjects achieved reactive/positive anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG, and IGRA test results showed a significant increase compared to the results before booster administration. We compared the results before and after the booster between participants with and without prior history of COVID-19. The IFNγ concentrations in both cohorts were higher in convalescents (both before booster and 21 days after). The IgG titers were subtly lower in COVID-19 convalescents than in naïve but without statistical significance. Data on cell-mediated immunity are scarce, especially with regard to the general population. A better understanding of the complexity of the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 could contribute to developing more effective vaccination strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2)

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11 pages, 2877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intranasal Immunization with a Vaccinia Virus Vaccine Vector Expressing Pre-Fusion Stabilized SARS-CoV-2 Spike Fully Protected Mice against Lethal Challenge with the Heavily Mutated Mouse-Adapted SARS2-N501Y_MA30 Strain of SARS-CoV-2

by Karen V. Kibler, Mateusz Szczerba, Douglas Lake, Alexa J. Roeder, Masmudur Rahman, Brenda G. Hogue, Lok-Yin Roy Wong, Stanley Perlman, Yize Li and Bertram L. Jacobs

Vaccines 2022, 10(8), 1172; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10081172 - 23 Jul 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2218

Abstract

The Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variant has been designated as a variant of concern because its spike protein is heavily mutated. In particular, the Omicron spike is mutated at five positions (K417, N440, E484, Q493, and N501) that have been associated with escape from neutralizing antibodies induced by either infection with or immunization against the early Washington strain of SARS-CoV-2. The mouse-adapted strain of SARS-CoV-2, SARS2-N501Y_MA30, contains a spike that is also heavily mutated, with mutations at four of the five positions in the Omicron spike associated with neutralizing antibody escape (K417, E484, Q493, and N501). In this manuscript, we show that intranasal immunization with a pre-fusion stabilized Washington strain spike, expressed from a highly attenuated, replication-competent vaccinia virus construct, NYVAC-KC, fully protected mice against symptoms and death from SARS2-N501Y_MA30. Similarly, immunization by scarification on the skin fully protected against death, but not from mild disease. This data demonstrates that the Washington strain spike, when expressed from a highly attenuated, replication-competent poxvirus—administered without parenteral injection—can fully protect against the heavily mutated mouse-adapted SARS2-N501Y_MA30. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2)

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13 pages, 1975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Specific T-Cell Immune Response to SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein over Time in Naïve and SARS-CoV-2 Previously Infected Subjects Vaccinated with BTN162b2

by Natali Vega-Magaña, José Francisco Muñoz-Valle, Marcela Peña-Rodríguez, Oliver Viera-Segura, Ana Laura Pereira-Suárez, Jorge Hernández-Bello and Mariel García-Chagollan

Vaccines 2022, 10(7), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10071117 - 13 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1795

Abstract

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the rapid development of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 has been promoted. BNT162b2 is a lipid-nanoparticle mRNA vaccine with 95% efficacy and is the most administered vaccine globally. Nevertheless, little is known about the cellular immune response triggered by vaccination and the immune behavior over time. Therefore, we evaluated the T-cell immune response against the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and neutralization antibodies (nAbs) in naïve and SARS-CoV-2 previously infected subjects vaccinated with BTN162b2. Methods: Forty-six BTN162b2 vaccinated subjects were included (twenty-six naïve and twenty SARS-CoV-2 previously infected subjects vaccinated with BTN162b2). Blood samples were obtained at basal (before vaccination), 15 days after the first dose, and 15 days after the second dose, to evaluate cellular immune response upon PBMC’s stimulation and cytokine levels. The nAbs were determined one and six months after the second dose. Results: SARS-CoV-2 previously infected subjects vaccinated with BTN162b2 showed the highest proportion of nAbs compared to naïve individuals one month after the second dose. However, women were more prone to lose nAbs percentages over time significantly. Furthermore, a diminished CD154+ IFN-γ+ CD4+ T-cell response was observed after the second BTN162b2 dose in those with previous SARS-CoV-2 infection. In contrast, naïve participants showed an overall increased CD8+ IFN-γ+ TNF-α+ T-cell response to the peptide stimulus. Moreover, a significant reduction in IP-10, IFN-λI, and IL-10 cytokine levels was found in both studied groups. Additionally, the median fluorescence intensity (MFI) levels of IL-6, IFNλ-2/3, IFN-𝛽, and GM-CSF (p < 0.05) were significantly reduced over time in the naïve participants. Conclusion: We demonstrate that a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection can also impact cellular T-cell response, nAbs production, and serum cytokine concentration. Therefore, the study of T-cell immune response is essential for vaccination scheme recommendations; future vaccine boost should be carefully addressed as continued stimulation by vaccination might impact the T-cell response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2)

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Review

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16 pages, 693 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Effect of Long COVID-19 Infection and Vaccination on Male Fertility; A Narrative Review

by Soheila Pourmasumi, Alireza Nazari, Zahra Ahmadi, Sophia N. Kouni, Cesare de Gregorio, Ioanna Koniari, Periklis Dousdampanis, Virginia Mplani, Panagiotis Plotas, Stelios Assimakopoulos, Christos Gogos, Georgios Aidonisdis, Pavlos Roditis, Nikos Matsas, Dimitrios Velissaris, Gianfranco Calogiuri, Ming-Yow Hung, Servet Altay and Nicholas G. Kounis

Vaccines 2022, 10(12), 1982; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10121982 - 22 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6277

Abstract

Earlier research has suggested that the male reproductive system could be particularly vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) infection, and infections involving this novel disease not only pose serious health threats but could also cause male infertility. Data from multi-organ research during the recent outbreak indicate that male infertility might not be diagnosed as a possible consequence of COVID-19 infection. Several review papers have summarized the etiology factors on male fertility, but to date no review paper has been published defining the effect of COVID-19 infection on male fertility. Therefore, the aim of this study is to review the published scientific evidence regarding male fertility potential, the risk of infertility during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the impact of COVID-19 vaccination on the male reproductive system. The effects of COVID-19 infection and the subsequent vaccination on seminal fluid, sperm count, sperm motility, sperm morphology, sperm viability, testes and sex hormones are particularly reviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2)

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19 pages, 1324 KiB

Open AccessReview

The SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies, Their Diagnostic Utility, and Their Potential for Vaccine Development

by Khalid Hajissa, Ali Mussa, Mohmed Isaqali Karobari, Muhammad Adamu Abbas, Ibrahim Khider Ibrahim, Ali A Assiry, Azhar Iqbal, Saad Alhumaid, Abbas Al Mutair, Ali A. Rabaan, Pietro Messina and Giuseppe Alessandro Scardina

Vaccines 2022, 10(8), 1346; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10081346 - 18 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2343

Abstract

Antibodies (Abs) are important immune mediators and powerful diagnostic markers in a wide range of infectious diseases. Understanding the humoral immunity or the development of effective antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 is a prerequisite for limiting disease burden in the community and aids in the development of new diagnostic, therapeutic, and vaccination options. Accordingly, the role of antiviral antibodies in the resistance to and diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection was explored. Antibody testing showed the potential in adding important diagnostic value to the routine diagnosis and clinical management of COVID-19. They could also play a critical role in COVID-19 surveillance, allowing for a better understanding of the full scope of the disease. The development of several vaccines and the success of passive immunotherapy suggest that anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies have the potential to be used in the treatment and prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this review, we highlight the role of antibodies in the diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection and provide an update on their protective roles in controlling SARS-CoV-2 infection as well as vaccine development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2)

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23 pages, 359 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Chemokines CXC, CC and C in the Pathogenesis of COVID-19 Disease and as Surrogates of Vaccine-Induced Innate and Adaptive Protective Responses

by Mojgan Noroozi Karimabad, Gholamhossein Hassanshahi, Nicholas G. Kounis, Virginia Mplani, Pavlos Roditis, Christos Gogos, Maria Lagadinou, Stelios F. Assimakopoulos, Periklis Dousdampanis and Ioanna Koniari

Vaccines 2022, 10(8), 1299; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10081299 - 11 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2222

Abstract

COVID-19 is one of the progressive viral pandemics that originated from East Asia. COVID-19 or SARS-CoV-2 has been shown to be associated with a chain of physio-pathological mechanisms that are basically immunological in nature. In addition, chemokines have been proposed as a subgroup of chemotactic cytokines with different activities ranging from leukocyte recruitment to injury sites, irritation, and inflammation to angiostasis and angiogenesis. Therefore, researchers have categorized the chemotactic elements into four classes, including CX3C, CXC, CC, and C, based on the location of the cysteine motifs in their structures. Considering the severe cases of COVID-19, the hyperproduction of particular chemokines occurring in lung tissue as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines significantly worsen the disease prognosis. According to the studies conducted in the field documenting the changing expression of CXC and CC chemokines in COVID-19 cases, the CC and CXC chemokines contribute to this pandemic, and their impact could reflect the development of reasonable strategies for COVID-19 management. The CC and the CXC families of chemokines are important in host immunity to viral infections and along with other biomarkers can serve as the surrogates of vaccine-induced innate and adaptive protective responses, facilitating the improvement of vaccine efficacy. Furthermore, the immunogenicity elicited by the chemokine response to adenovirus vector vaccines may constitute the basis of vaccine-induced immune thrombotic thrombocytopaenia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Response against SARS-CoV-2)

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