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Toxins
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Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change
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Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2021) | Viewed by 30036

Special Issue Editor

Prof. emer Leif Sundheim

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Guest Editor
Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Norway
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has concluded that recent changes in global climate systems have increased atmospheric temperatures, which is associated with increased growth of toxigenic fungi in crops. Future rise in global temperatures (2–5 °C) and further increase in CO2 levels (from 350–400 to 650–1200 ppm) will have a significant impact both on plant growth and on mycotoxin-producing fungi. Research has demonstrated that only a slight elevation of CO2 levels will stimulate the growth of mycotoxin-producing fungi. There is an increased risk for mycotoxin contamination of maize, wheat, and other small grain species, and in a changing climate, mycotoxins will contaminate new crops and new geographical areas. Predictive modeling will be helpful to identify regions where the maximum temperature impact may occur. Acclimatization of toxigenic fungi to climate change will probably be more rapid than the development of crop plant varieties for a changing climate. Countries with a temperate climate in Europe, North and South America, Asia, and Africa will run the highest risk of increased mycotoxin contamination of crops. The development of models for regional prediction of infection by mycotoxin-producing fungi and contamination of staple crops is an important measure in global efforts to reduce the risks for mycotoxin contamination of human food and feed for domestic animals.

Prof. emer Leif Sundheim
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • climate change
  • mycotoxin
  • toxigenic fungi

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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37 pages, 4573 KiB  
Article
Deoxynivalenol Occurrence in Triticale Crops in Romania during the 2012–2014 Period with Extreme Weather Events
by Valeria Gagiu, Elena Mateescu, Alina Alexandra Dobre, Irina Smeu, Mirela Elena Cucu, Oana Alexandra Oprea, Daniel Alexandru, Enuța Iorga and Nastasia Belc
Toxins 2021, 13(7), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13070456 - 29 Jun 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4354
Abstract
This article aims to evaluate deoxynivalenol occurrence in triticale crops in Romania in years with extreme weather events (2012: Siberian anticyclone with cold waves and heavy snowfall; 2013 and 2014: “Vb” cyclones with heavy precipitation and floods in spring). The deoxynivalenol level in [...] Read more.
This article aims to evaluate deoxynivalenol occurrence in triticale crops in Romania in years with extreme weather events (2012: Siberian anticyclone with cold waves and heavy snowfall; 2013 and 2014: “Vb” cyclones with heavy precipitation and floods in spring). The deoxynivalenol level in triticale samples (N = 236) was quantified by ELISA. In Romania, the extreme weather events favoured deoxynivalenol occurrence in triticale in Transylvania and the Southern Hilly Area (44–47° N, 22–25° E) with a humid/balanced-humid temperate continental climate, luvisols and high/very high risk of floods. Maximum deoxynivalenol contamination was lower in the other regions, although heavy precipitation in May–July 2014 was higher, with chernozems having higher aridity. Multivariate analysis of the factors influencing deoxynivalenol occurrence in triticale showed at least a significant correlation for all components of variation source (agricultural year, agricultural region, average of deoxynivalenol, average air temperature, cumulative precipitation, soil moisture reserve, aridity indices) (p-value < 0.05). The spatial and geographic distribution of deoxynivalenol in cereals in the countries affected by the 2012–2014 extreme weather events revealed a higher contamination in Central Europe compared to southeastern and eastern Europe. Deoxynivalenol occurrence in cereals was favoured by local and regional agroclimatic factors and was amplified by extreme weather events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change)
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15 pages, 2052 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Climate Change Interacting Abiotic Factors on Growth, aflD and aflR Gene Expression and Aflatoxin B1 Production by Aspergillus flavus Strains In Vitro and on Pistachio Nuts
by Alaa Baazeem, Alicia Rodriguez, Angel Medina and Naresh Magan
Toxins 2021, 13(6), 385; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13060385 - 28 May 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4192
Abstract
Pistachio nuts are an important economic tree nut crop which is used directly or processed for many food-related activities. They can become colonized by mycotoxigenic spoilage fungi, especially Aspergillus flavus, mainly resulting in contamination with aflatoxins (AFs), especially aflatoxin B1 (AFB [...] Read more.
Pistachio nuts are an important economic tree nut crop which is used directly or processed for many food-related activities. They can become colonized by mycotoxigenic spoilage fungi, especially Aspergillus flavus, mainly resulting in contamination with aflatoxins (AFs), especially aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The prevailing climate in which these crops are grown changes as temperature and atmospheric CO2 levels increase, and episodes of extreme wet/dry cycles occur due to human industrial activity. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effect of interacting Climate Change (CC)-related abiotic factors of temperature (35 vs. 37 °C), CO2 (400 vs. 1000 ppm), and water stress (0.98–0.93 water activity, aw) on (a) growth (b) aflD and aflR biosynthetic gene expression and (c) AFB1 production by two strains A. flavus (AB3, AB10) in vitro on milled pistachio-based media and when colonizing layers of shelled raw pistachio nuts. The A. flavus strains were resilient in terms of growth on pistachio-based media and the colonisation of pistachio nuts with no significant difference when exposed to the interacting three-way climate-related abiotic factors. However, in vitro studies showed that AFB1 production was significantly stimulated (p < 0.05), especially when exposed to 1000 ppm CO2 at 0.98–0.95 aw and 35 °C, and sometimes in the 37 °C treatment group at 0.98 aw. The relative expression of the structural aflD gene involved in AFB1 biosynthesis was decreased or only slightly increased, relative to the control conditions at elevated CO, regardless of the aw level examined. For the regulatory aflR gene expression, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in 1000 ppm CO2 and 37 °C for both strains, especially at 0.95 aw. The in situ colonization of pistachio nuts resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) stimulation of AFB1 production at 35 °C and 1000 ppm CO2 for both strains, especially at 0.98 aw. At 37 °C, AFB1 production was either decreased, in strain AB3, or remained similar, as in strain AB10, when exposed to 1000 ppm CO2. This suggests that CC factors may have a differential effect, depending on the interacting conditions of temperature, exposure to CO2 and the level of water stress on AFB1 production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change)
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12 pages, 944 KiB  
Article
A Two-Year Occurrence of Fusarium T-2 and HT-2 Toxin in Croatian Cereals Relative of the Regional Weather
by Maja Kiš, Ana Vulić, Nina Kudumija, Bojan Šarkanj, Vesna Jaki Tkalec, Krunoslav Aladić, Mario Škrivanko, Sanja Furmeg and Jelka Pleadin
Toxins 2021, 13(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13010039 - 7 Jan 2021
Cited by 35 | Viewed by 3227
Abstract
To investigate into the T-2 and HT-2 toxin occurrence, 240 samples of unprocessed cereals (maize, wheat, barley, and oats) were sampled from different fields located in three Croatian regions during 2017–2018. In all samples, sum concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxin were determined using the [...] Read more.
To investigate into the T-2 and HT-2 toxin occurrence, 240 samples of unprocessed cereals (maize, wheat, barley, and oats) were sampled from different fields located in three Croatian regions during 2017–2018. In all samples, sum concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxin were determined using the ELISA method, while the LC-MS/MS was used as a confirmatory method for both mycotoxins in positive samples (>LOD) and the establishment of T-2 over HT-2 toxin ratios. The results showed oats to be the most contaminated cereal, with T-2/HT-2 toxins detected in 70.0% of samples, followed by barley (40.9%), maize (26.8%) and wheat (19.2%), with the mean T-2/HT-2 ratio ranging from 1:2.7 in maize to 1:4.4 in oats. Sum T-2/HT-2 concentrations in two maize samples were higher than the indicative level recommended by the European Commission, necessitating subsequent investigations into the conditions under which these poorly investigated mycotoxins are produced. Statistically significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentrations of T-2/HT-2 toxin were determined in oats throughout study regions as compared to those found in wheat, but not maize and barley, while the concentrations of these mycotoxins were related to the regional weather in Croatia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change)
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14 pages, 1206 KiB  
Article
Effect of Temperature, Water Activity and Carbon Dioxide on Fungal Growth and Mycotoxin Production of Acclimatised Isolates of Fusarium verticillioides and F. graminearum
by Ladi Peter Mshelia, Jinap Selamat, Nik Iskandar Putra Samsudin, Mohd Y. Rafii, Noor-Azira Abdul Mutalib, Noordiana Nordin and Franz Berthiller
Toxins 2020, 12(8), 478; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12080478 - 28 Jul 2020
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 5063
Abstract
Climate change is primarily manifested by elevated temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and is projected to provide suitable cultivation grounds for pests and pathogens in the otherwise unsuitable regions. The impacts of climate change have been predicted in many parts [...] Read more.
Climate change is primarily manifested by elevated temperature and carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and is projected to provide suitable cultivation grounds for pests and pathogens in the otherwise unsuitable regions. The impacts of climate change have been predicted in many parts of the world, which could threaten global food safety and food security. The aim of the present work was therefore to examine the interacting effects of water activity (aw) (0.92, 0.95, 0.98 aw), CO2 (400, 800, 1200 ppm) and temperature (30, 35 °C and 30, 33 °C for Fusarium verticillioides and F. graminearum, respectively) on fungal growth and mycotoxin production of acclimatised isolates of F. verticillioides and F. graminearum isolated from maize. To determine fungal growth, the colony diameters were measured on days 1, 3, 5, and 7. The mycotoxins produced were quantified using a quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometer (QTOF-MS) combined with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) system. For F. verticillioides, the optimum conditions for growth of fumonisin B1 (FB1), and fumonisin B2 (FB2) were 30 °C + 0.98 aw + 400 ppm CO2. These conditions were also optimum for F. graminearum growth, and zearalenone (ZEA) and deoxynivalenol (DON) production. Since 30 °C and 400 ppm CO2 were the baseline treatments, it was hence concluded that the elevated temperature and CO2 levels tested did not seem to significantly impact fungal growth and mycotoxin production of acclimatised Fusarium isolates. To the best of our knowledge thus far, the present work described for the first time the effects of simulated climate change conditions on fungal growth and mycotoxin production of acclimatised isolates of F. verticillioides and F. graminearum. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change)
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21 pages, 23036 KiB  
Review
Predicted Aflatoxin B1 Increase in Europe Due to Climate Change: Actions and Reactions at Global Level
by Marco Camardo Leggieri, Piero Toscano and Paola Battilani
Toxins 2021, 13(4), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040292 - 20 Apr 2021
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 6021
Abstract
Climate change (CC) is predicted to increase the risk of aflatoxin (AF) contamination in maize, as highlighted by a project supported by EFSA in 2009. We performed a comprehensive literature search using the Scopus search engine to extract peer-reviewed studies citing this study. [...] Read more.
Climate change (CC) is predicted to increase the risk of aflatoxin (AF) contamination in maize, as highlighted by a project supported by EFSA in 2009. We performed a comprehensive literature search using the Scopus search engine to extract peer-reviewed studies citing this study. A total of 224 papers were identified after step I filtering (187 + 37), while step II filtering identified 25 of these papers for quantitative analysis. The unselected papers (199) were categorized as “actions” because they provided a sounding board for the expected impact of CC on AFB1 contamination, without adding new data on the topic. The remaining papers were considered as “reactions” of the scientific community because they went a step further in their data and ideas. Interesting statements taken from the “reactions” could be summarized with the following keywords: Chain and multi-actor approach, intersectoral and multidisciplinary, resilience, human and animal health, and global vision. In addition, fields meriting increased research efforts were summarized as the improvement of predictive modeling; extension to different crops and geographic areas; and the impact of CC on fungi and mycotoxin co-occurrence, both in crops and their value chains, up to consumers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change)
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10 pages, 650 KiB  
Review
Quantitative Modeling of Climate Change Impacts on Mycotoxins in Cereals: A Review
by Cheng Liu and H. J. Van der Fels-Klerx
Toxins 2021, 13(4), 276; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13040276 - 12 Apr 2021
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 4349
Abstract
Our climate is projected to change gradually over time. Mycotoxin occurrence in cereal grains is both directly and indirectly related to local weather and to climate changes. Direct routes are via the effects of precipitation, relative humidity, and temperatures on both fungal infection [...] Read more.
Our climate is projected to change gradually over time. Mycotoxin occurrence in cereal grains is both directly and indirectly related to local weather and to climate changes. Direct routes are via the effects of precipitation, relative humidity, and temperatures on both fungal infection of the grain and mycotoxin formation. Indirect routes are via the effects of the wind dispersal of spores, insect attacks, and shifts in cereal grain phenology. This review aimed to investigate available modeling studies for climate change impacts on mycotoxins in cereal grains, and to identify how they can be used to safeguard food safety with future climate change. Using a systematic review approach, in total, 53 relevant papers from the period of 2005–2020 were retrieved. Only six of them focused on quantitative modeling of climate change impacts on mycotoxins, all in pre-harvest cereal grains. Although regional differences exist, the model results generally show an increase in mycotoxins in a changing climate. The models do not give an indication on how to adapt to climate change impacts. If available models were linked with land use and crop models, scenario analyses could be used for analyzing adaptation strategies to avoid high mycotoxin presence in cereal grains and to safeguard the safety of our feed and food. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins in Relation to Climate Change)
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