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Toxins
Special Issues
Venom Genes and Genomes of Venomous Animals: Evolution and Variation
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Venom Genes and Genomes of Venomous Animals: Evolution and Variation

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Venoms".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 July 2025) | Viewed by 4756

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nancy Oguiura

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Ecology and Evolution Laboratory, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, SP, Brazil
Interests: snake beta-defensins; snake venom and toxins; molecular evolution; gene expression
Dr. Maria José J. Silva

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Ecology and Evolution Laboratory, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, SP, Brazil
Interests: cytogenetics; molecular phylogeny; phylogeography; biodiversity conservation and evolution

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The evolution of a gene occurs not only after point mutations, insertions, or the deletions of sequences but also due to its location in the genome, which may encompass recombinations, duplications, and/or other events. In this way, it is interesting to study not only the toxin genes but also the genome of venomous animals in all forms of organization, which includes chromosomes and chromosome evolution. In addition, the localization of toxin genes in the chromosome can influence the expression of that toxin.

Thus, this Special Issue aims to publish what has been done to toxins at the genetic level, as well as studies related to the genomes and chromosomes of venomous animals from evolutionary and multidisciplinary perspectives, thus looking at the evolution of toxins and venoms in an interdisciplinary way.

Reviews and research papers on genetic and biochemical aspects of venom polymorphism, toxin variation, toxin expression, and genomes of venomous animals are accepted, as well as explorations of co-evolution from an interdisciplinary approach.

Dr. Nancy Oguiura
Dr. Maria José J. Silva
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • venom polymorphism
  • toxin evolution
  • gene expression
  • gene structure
  • genome evolution
  • gene family
  • transcriptome
  • genome structure and organization
  • next-generation sequencing
  • co-evolution
  • convergent evolution

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 1611 KiB  
Article
Explaining Echis: Proteotranscriptomic Profiling of Echis carinatus carinatus Venom
by Salil Javed, Prasad Gopalkrishna Gond, Arpan Samanta, Ajinkya Unawane, Muralidhar Nayak Mudavath, Anurag Jaglan and Kartik Sunagar
Toxins 2025, 17(7), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17070353 - 16 Jul 2025
Viewed by 1006
Abstract
Snakebite remains the most neglected tropical disease globally, with India experiencing the highest rates of mortality and morbidity. While most envenomation cases in India are attributed to the ‘big four’ snakes, research has predominantly focused on Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), [...] Read more.
Snakebite remains the most neglected tropical disease globally, with India experiencing the highest rates of mortality and morbidity. While most envenomation cases in India are attributed to the ‘big four’ snakes, research has predominantly focused on Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), spectacled cobra (Naja naja), and common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), leading to a considerable gap in our understanding of saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus carinatus) venoms. For instance, the venom gland transcriptome and inter- and intra-population venom variation in E. c. carinatus have largely remained uninvestigated. A single study to date has assessed the effectiveness of commercial antivenoms against this species under in vivo conditions. To address these crucial knowledge gaps, we conducted a detailed investigation of E. c. carinatus venom and reported the first venom gland transcriptome. A proteotranscriptomic evaluation revealed snake venom metalloproteinases, C-type lectins, L-amino acid oxidases, phospholipase A2s, and snake venom serine proteases as the major toxins. Moreover, we assessed the intra-population venom variation in this species using an array of biochemical analyses. Finally, we determined the venom toxicity and the neutralising efficacy of a commercial antivenom using a murine model of snake envenoming. Our results provide a thorough molecular and functional profile of E. c. carinatus venom. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Venom Genes and Genomes of Venomous Animals: Evolution and Variation)
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16 pages, 2115 KiB  
Article
Evolution of Three-Finger Toxin Genes in Neotropical Colubrine Snakes (Colubridae)
by Kristy Srodawa, Peter A. Cerda, Alison R. Davis Rabosky and Jenna M. Crowe-Riddell
Toxins 2023, 15(9), 523; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15090523 - 25 Aug 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2752
Abstract
Snake venom research has historically focused on front-fanged species (Viperidae and Elapidae), limiting our knowledge of venom evolution in rear-fanged snakes across their ecologically diverse phylogeny. Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) are a known neurotoxic component in the venoms of some rear-fanged snakes (Colubridae: Colubrinae), [...] Read more.
Snake venom research has historically focused on front-fanged species (Viperidae and Elapidae), limiting our knowledge of venom evolution in rear-fanged snakes across their ecologically diverse phylogeny. Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) are a known neurotoxic component in the venoms of some rear-fanged snakes (Colubridae: Colubrinae), but it is unclear how prevalent 3FTxs are both in expression within venom glands and more broadly among colubrine species. Here, we used a transcriptomic approach to characterize the venom expression profiles of four species of colubrine snakes from the Neotropics that were dominated by 3FTx expression (in the genera Chironius, Oxybelis, Rhinobothryum, and Spilotes). By reconstructing the gene trees of 3FTxs, we found evidence of putative novel heterodimers in the sequences of Chironius multiventris and Oxybelis aeneus, revealing an instance of parallel evolution of this structural change in 3FTxs among rear-fanged colubrine snakes. We also found positive selection at sites within structural loops or “fingers” of 3FTxs, indicating these areas may be key binding sites that interact with prey target molecules. Overall, our results highlight the importance of exploring the venoms of understudied species in reconstructing the full evolutionary history of toxins across the tree of life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Venom Genes and Genomes of Venomous Animals: Evolution and Variation)
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Review

Jump to: Research

51 pages, 6544 KiB  
Review
Variations in “Functional Site” Residues and Classification of Three-Finger Neurotoxins in Snake Venoms
by R. Manjunatha Kini and Cho Yeow Koh
Toxins 2025, 17(8), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17080364 - 24 Jul 2025
Viewed by 174
Abstract
Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) are the largest group of nonenzymatic toxins found in snake venoms. Among them, neurotoxins that target nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are the most well-studied ligands. In addition to the classical neurotoxins, several other new classes have been characterized for their structure, [...] Read more.
Three-finger toxins (3FTxs) are the largest group of nonenzymatic toxins found in snake venoms. Among them, neurotoxins that target nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are the most well-studied ligands. In addition to the classical neurotoxins, several other new classes have been characterized for their structure, receptor subtype, and species selectivity. Here, we systematically analyzed over 700 amino acid sequences of three-finger neurotoxins that interact with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Based on the amino acid residue substitutions in the functional sites and structural features of various classes of neurotoxins, we have classified them into over 150 distinct subgroups. Currently, only a small number of typical examples representing these subgroups have been studied for their structure, function, and subtype selectivity. The functional site residues responsible for their interaction with specific receptor subtypes of several toxins are yet to be identified. The molecular details of each subgroup representative toxin with its target receptor will contribute towards the understanding of subtype- and/or interface-selectivity. Thus, this review will provide new impetus in the toxin research and pave the way for the design of potent, selective ligands for nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Venom Genes and Genomes of Venomous Animals: Evolution and Variation)
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