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Toxins
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Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed
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Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 20304

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Marija Kovač Tomas

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Food Technology, University of North, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia
Interests: food safety; food contaminants and residues; mycotoxins; food analytics; liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry; method validation; measurement uncertainty
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins, secondary fungal metabolites of low-dose toxicity, are unambiguous food and feed contaminants considered to be one of the most important chronic dietary risk factors, causing toxicity syndromes as a result of their intake, which is known as mycotoxicosis. The estimation of the worldwide contamination of food crops with mycotoxins is around 60%–80%, highlighting the need for constant and continuous mycotoxins control, as well as proper strategies for mitigating mycotoxin contamination in food and feed, especially when considering climate change scenarios.

Currently available methods for mycotoxin reduction and detoxification include conventional physical, chemical and biological procedures, but also innovative strategies based on the use of nanotechnology and phytochemicals, antibody-mediated technology, biotechnology and genetic engineering, or emerging non-thermal processing technology. However, complete efficiency for various matrices is still not achieved, leaving room for additional progress, emphasizing green technologies, multidimensional approaches and integrated management strategies, combining both conventional and innovative methods for better adaptability and variability.

Accordingly, the focus of this Special Issue of Toxins is to gather scientific papers, including both original research papers and review articles, on toxicology, detoxification and the degradation and prevention of mycotoxins. We hope to propose innovative methodological solutions for the characterization and determination of mycotoxins, their degradation products and the control of mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins, revealing new insights in this research area.

Dr. Marija Kovač Tomas
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • mycotoxins
  • mycotoxigenic fungi
  • toxicology
  • detection and occurrence
  • reduction and detoxification
  • innovative mitigation strategies
  • prevention
  • climate change

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 1393 KB  
Article
Pre-Harvest Agronomic Reduction in Fusarium Mycotoxins in Winter Barley: Effects of Agrotechnical Intensity on Grain Mycobiome, DON/ZEN and Feed-Quality Traits
by Sylwia Barbara Okorska, Magdalena Serafin-Andrzejewska, Agnieszka Pszczółkowska, Agnieszka Falkiewicz, Marcin Włodarczyk, Mengcen Wang, Adam Okorski and Marcin Kozak
Toxins 2026, 18(4), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040171 - 2 Apr 2026
Viewed by 714
Abstract
Winter barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is an important crop used for feed, food, malting, and bioethanol production. Recent research indicates that the seed mycobiome significantly influences seed health and usability, affecting its potential applications. This study examined the fungal species present in [...] Read more.
Winter barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is an important crop used for feed, food, malting, and bioethanol production. Recent research indicates that the seed mycobiome significantly influences seed health and usability, affecting its potential applications. This study examined the fungal species present in seven barley cultivars grown under two agrotechnical regimes. Fungal species were classified according to their effects on seeds and plants, and biodiversity indices were calculated for each group. Enhanced agrotechnical practices increased yields and improved grain quality. Higher DON concentrations were observed in low-yield treatments. Mycological analysis revealed that field fungi, particularly Fusarium, dominated the grain mycobiome and were associated with infection and reduced seed quality. High Dominance (Y), Margalef, and Shannon–Wiener indices for quality-deteriorating fungi correlated with lower yields, while the Dominance index (λ) for these fungi was negatively correlated with grain protein content. The prevalence of specific fungi on seeds depends on storage conditions and fungal adaptations, which may result in complementary consortia. Understanding these interactions can support the development of effective seed storage strategies and inform material classification and future use decisions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed)
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13 pages, 1757 KB  
Article
Potential Application of Nanocellulose Derived from Bagasse and Durian Rind for Mitigation of Mycotoxin Contamination in Poultry Diets
by Chaiwat Arjin, Kwancheewa Jaima, Apinya Satsook, Parichat Thipchai, Kanticha Pratinthong, Pornchai Rachtanapun and Korawan Sringarm
Toxins 2026, 18(2), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18020085 - 6 Feb 2026
Viewed by 665
Abstract
This study was aimed at producing nanocellulose from sugarcane bagasse and durian rind residues for applications to determine adsorption capacity against mycotoxin in poultry diets. Durian rind-derived nanocellulose exhibited finer fiber (12–21 nm diameter and 197–350 nm length) and higher yield (42.1%) than [...] Read more.
This study was aimed at producing nanocellulose from sugarcane bagasse and durian rind residues for applications to determine adsorption capacity against mycotoxin in poultry diets. Durian rind-derived nanocellulose exhibited finer fiber (12–21 nm diameter and 197–350 nm length) and higher yield (42.1%) than bagasse-derived nanocellulose (18–36 nm diameter and 82–169 nm length), with FTIR confirming purer cellulose I/II structures. The in vitro test adsorption capacity against ochratoxin (OTA) was determined at an incubation time of 180 min to establish working conditions. It was found that the working conditions of bagasse-derived nanocellulose and durian rind-derived nanocellulose were 33 mg/mL and 36.5 mg/mL, respectively. Subsequently, using these working conditions, adsorption capacity was determined via an in vitro digestibility test. Bagasse-derived nanocellulose exhibited an adsorption capacity against OTA of 35.59%, while durian rind-derived nanocellulose achieved an OTA adsorption rate of 39.53% at a contact time of 3 h. Naturally contaminated poultry feeds collected from nine farms in Chiang Mai, Thailand, indicated that both types of nanocelluloses achieved minimum–maximum OTA adsorption rates of 42–43%, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) at 29–30%, and fumonisin B1 (FB1) at 21–23% across the nine farms’ mean values. These findings suggest that nanocellulose derived from sugarcane bagasse and durian rind has potential as a sustainable biosorbent for improving mycotoxin management in poultry production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed)
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19 pages, 1927 KB  
Article
Plasma Metabolomics Reveals Systemic Metabolic Remodeling in Early-Lactation Dairy Cows Fed a Fusarium-Contaminated Diet and Supplemented with a Mycotoxin-Deactivating Product
by Gabriele Rocchetti, Alessandro Catellani, Marco Lapris, Nicole Reisinger, Johannes Faas, Ignacio Artavia, Silvia Labudova, Erminio Trevisi and Antonio Gallo
Toxins 2026, 18(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18010009 - 22 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1017
Abstract
This study investigated the systemic metabolic effects of feeding a Fusarium-contaminated diet to early-lactation Holstein cows, with or without a mycotoxin-deactivating product (MDP; Mycofix® Plus, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Tulln, Austria). Thirty cows were divided into three dietary groups: a mildly contaminated [...] Read more.
This study investigated the systemic metabolic effects of feeding a Fusarium-contaminated diet to early-lactation Holstein cows, with or without a mycotoxin-deactivating product (MDP; Mycofix® Plus, BIOMIN Holding GmbH, Tulln, Austria). Thirty cows were divided into three dietary groups: a mildly contaminated control (CTR), a moderately contaminated diet containing zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (MTX), and the same contaminated diet supplemented with MDP. Plasma collected at 56 days in milk was analyzed by untargeted ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), and multivariate models identified discriminant metabolites and pathways. MTX-fed cows showed alterations in sphingolipid metabolism, including accumulation of ceramide (t18:0/16:0), lactosylceramide, and sphinganine 1-phosphate, consistent with ceramide synthase inhibition and lipid remodeling stress. Increases in estradiol, estrone, and cholesterol sulfate suggested endocrine disruption, while elevated 8-oxo-dGMP indicated oxidative DNA damage. MDP supplementation mitigated these alterations, reducing sphingolipid intermediates, modulating tryptophan and glycerophospholipid pathways, and lowering oxidative stress markers. Metabolites such as riboflavin, pipecolic acid, and N-acetylserotonin could be likely associated with an improved mitochondrial function and redox homeostasis, although future studies are required to confirm this hypothesis. Additionally, MDP-fed cows exhibited distinct shifts in pyrimidine and nucleotide metabolism. Overall, MDP effectively counteracted Fusarium-related metabolic disturbances, supporting its protective role in maintaining lipid balance, hormonal stability, oxidative control, and metabolic resilience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed)
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22 pages, 804 KB  
Article
Prevalence and Risk Assessment of Multiple Mycotoxins in Durum Wheat from Fields Under Different Agricultural Practices in Tunisia
by Marwa Hassine, Khouloud Ben Hassouna, Salma Tissaoui, Mokhtar Baraket, Amine Slim, Olfa Ayed Slama, Hajer Slim Amara, Ahmed Al-Amiery, Noelia Pallarés, Houda Berrada, Samir Abbès and Jalila Ben Salah-Abbès
Toxins 2025, 17(8), 410; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17080410 - 14 Aug 2025
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2334
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination in wheat, a staple food critical to human nutrition, poses significant public health concerns. This study investigated the natural occurrence of 17 mycotoxins in Tunisian durum wheat, assessed the influence of soil tillage practices on mycotoxin contamination, and performed an associated [...] Read more.
Mycotoxin contamination in wheat, a staple food critical to human nutrition, poses significant public health concerns. This study investigated the natural occurrence of 17 mycotoxins in Tunisian durum wheat, assessed the influence of soil tillage practices on mycotoxin contamination, and performed an associated exposure risk assessment. A total of 167 wheat samples were randomly collected over two years (2021 and 2022) from fields managed under conventional tillage (CT) and no-tillage (NT) systems during both pre- and post-harvest periods. Mycotoxins were extracted using the QuEChERS method and quantified via UHPLC-MS/MS. The results demonstrated contamination by ZEN, DON, OTA, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1. Among regulated mycotoxins, OTA was the most prevalent, detected in 68 out of 167 samples with a mean concentration of 1.85 µg/kg. ZEN was the most abundant, detected in 65 samples with a mean concentration of 26.85 µg/kg, while DON was less frequently detected in 62 samples with a mean concentration of 0.68 µg/kg. Regarding emerging mycotoxins, ENB was the most prevalent and abundant, found in 51 samples with a mean concentration of 10.13 µg/kg; ENB1 and ENA1 were detected in 20 and 10 samples, with mean concentrations of 3.38 µg/kg and 1.69 µg/kg, respectively. Furthermore, mycotoxin concentrations varied according to agricultural practices. DON, ZEN, ENA1, ENB, and ENB1 showed higher frequencies and concentrations (ranging from 0.08 to 210.11 µg/kg) in samples collected during the 2021 pre-harvest period from NT fields. In contrast, OTA exhibited greater prevalence and higher concentrations (ranging from 2.33 to 9.78 µ/kg) in samples collected during the 2022 post-harvest period from CT fields. The Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) of mycotoxins by Tunisian adults was calculated based on contamination levels in raw durum wheat from fields under NT and CT practices, resulting in the following values (ng/kg bw/day), with the first value corresponding to NT samples and the second to CT samples: OTA (17.3; 20.8), ZEN (466.3; 194.0), DON (8.0; 7.56), ENA1 (4.30; 18.85), ENB (105.17; 121.08), and ENB1 (49.91; 40.91). Both the Margin of Exposure (MOE) values for OTA and the Hazard Quotients (HQ) for ZEN and DON exceeded established safety thresholds, indicating potential health risks for Tunisian adults. These findings highlight the urgent need to implement stricter mycotoxin regulations in Tunisia and enhance surveillance systems. Further research is warranted to elucidate the mechanisms by which soil tillage practices influence mycotoxin contamination and to develop targeted mitigation strategies to ensure food safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed)
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Review

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24 pages, 2023 KB  
Review
New Insights into Mycotoxin Contamination, Detection, and Mitigation in Food and Feed Systems
by Marija Kovač Tomas and Iva Jurčević Šangut
Toxins 2025, 17(10), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17100515 - 20 Oct 2025
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5488
Abstract
Mycotoxins are ubiquitous and unavoidable contaminants in food and feed, posing significant health risks through toxicity syndromes collectively referred to as mycotoxicoses. With climate change enhancing the conditions favorable for fungal growth and mycotoxin production, concerns over food and feed safety are increasingly [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are ubiquitous and unavoidable contaminants in food and feed, posing significant health risks through toxicity syndromes collectively referred to as mycotoxicoses. With climate change enhancing the conditions favorable for fungal growth and mycotoxin production, concerns over food and feed safety are increasingly pressing. Although regulatory frameworks have been established to monitor and limit the exposure, effective mitigation remains a challenge. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in the prevention, detection, and control of mycotoxins, with particular emphasis on innovative strategies such as plant-derived bioactives, nanotechnology-based systems, genetic engineering approaches, antibody-mediated technology, and emerging non-thermal processing methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed)
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24 pages, 3858 KB  
Review
Emerging Strategies for Aflatoxin Resistance in Peanuts via Precision Breeding
by Archana Khadgi, Saikrisha Lekkala, Pankaj K. Verma, Naveen Puppala and Madhusudhana R. Janga
Toxins 2025, 17(8), 394; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17080394 - 6 Aug 2025
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3883
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination, primarily caused by Aspergillus flavus, poses a significant threat to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) production, food safety, and global trade. Despite extensive efforts, breeding for durable resistance remains difficult due to the polygenic and environmentally sensitive nature of resistance. [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin contamination, primarily caused by Aspergillus flavus, poses a significant threat to peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) production, food safety, and global trade. Despite extensive efforts, breeding for durable resistance remains difficult due to the polygenic and environmentally sensitive nature of resistance. Although germplasm such as J11 have shown partial resistance, none of the identified lines demonstrated stable or comprehensive protection across diverse environments. Resistance involves physical barriers, biochemical defenses, and suppression of toxin biosynthesis. However, these traits typically exhibit modest effects and are strongly influenced by genotype–environment interactions. A paradigm shift is underway with increasing focus on host susceptibility (S) genes, native peanut genes exploited by A. flavus to facilitate colonization or toxin production. Recent studies have identified promising S gene candidates such as AhS5H1/2, which suppress salicylic acid-mediated defense, and ABR1, a negative regulator of ABA signaling. Disrupting such genes through gene editing holds potential for broad-spectrum resistance. To advance resistance breeding, an integrated pipeline is essential. This includes phenotyping diverse germplasm under stress conditions, mapping resistance loci using QTL and GWAS, and applying multi-omics platforms to identify candidate genes. Functional validation using CRISPR/Cas9, Cas12a, base editors, and prime editing allows precise gene targeting. Validated genes can be introgressed into elite lines through breeding by marker-assisted and genomic selection, accelerating the breeding of aflatoxin-resistant peanut varieties. This review highlights recent advances in peanut aflatoxin resistance research, emphasizing susceptibility gene targeting and genome editing. Integrating conventional breeding with multi-omics and precision biotechnology offers a promising path toward developing aflatoxin-free peanut cultivars. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed)
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22 pages, 685 KB  
Review
Mycotoxins in Broiler Production: Impacts on Growth, Immunity, Vaccine Efficacy, and Food Safety
by Ramona Maria Olariu, Nicodim Iosif Fiţ, Cosmina Maria Bouari and George Cosmin Nadăş
Toxins 2025, 17(6), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17060261 - 22 May 2025
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5075
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that frequently contaminate poultry feed, posing significant risks to animal health, productivity, and food safety. In broiler production, mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone have been shown to impair growth performance, damage key [...] Read more.
Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that frequently contaminate poultry feed, posing significant risks to animal health, productivity, and food safety. In broiler production, mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone have been shown to impair growth performance, damage key organs, and disrupt immune function. This review explores the multifaceted impact of mycotoxin exposure in broilers, with particular emphasis on immunosuppression, decreased vaccine efficacy, and increased vulnerability to infectious diseases, including coccidiosis, salmonellosis, E. coli, and viral infections like infectious bursal disease and infectious laryngotracheitis. Mycotoxin contamination in poultry feed can lead to direct economic losses through reduced feed conversion efficiency, increased mortality, and reproductive disorders, while also resulting in the transfer of toxic residues into meat and eggs, thereby threatening consumer health. The review further examines the synergistic interactions between mycotoxins and pathogens, the physiological and histopathological changes in exposed birds, and the implications for public health. Finally, it discusses current mitigation strategies, including mycotoxin binders, probiotics, and regulatory approaches to reduce exposure. An integrated management strategy combining feed hygiene, monitoring, and targeted nutritional interventions is essential to safeguard poultry health, enhance vaccine responses, and ensure the safety of poultry-derived food products. This review offers actionable insights for veterinarians, nutritionists, and policymakers, reinforcing the importance of mycotoxin mitigation strategies within a One Health framework. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies for Mitigating Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed)
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