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Toxins
Special Issues
Marine Biotoxins: Bioactivities, Identification, and Potential Bioprocesses
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Marine Biotoxins: Bioactivities, Identification, and Potential Bioprocesses

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Marine and Freshwater Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2026) | Viewed by 13115

Editor

Dr. Juan Jose Gallardo Rodriguez

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad de Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
Interests: biochemical engineering; bioprocess; technology; microalgae; marine toxins; marine ecology; cell lysis; chemical engineering; industrial biotechnology; photobioreactors
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Marine biotoxins, produced by various marine organisms such as dinoflagellates, cyanobacteria, and certain algae, represent a diverse group of bioactive compounds. These biotoxins play significant roles in marine ecosystems, influencing predator–prey dynamics and species interactions. At the same time, their potential impacts on seafood safety and human health make them of paramount importance for environmental monitoring and regulatory frameworks.

This Special Issue aims to bring together the latest research on bioactivities, identification, and potential bioprocesses involving marine biotoxins. While traditionally studied for their harmful effects, there is growing interest in harnessing the unique properties of these toxins for beneficial applications, including pharmaceuticals, biopesticides, and novel bioactive compounds for biotechnology. However, challenges remain in the scalable production and isolation of marine biotoxins, as well as in the development of reliable detection methods.

We invite contributions that explore a wide range of topics, including, but not limited to, the following:

  • The biological activities and mechanisms of action of marine biotoxins.
  • Advances in identification, quantification, and analytical techniques.
  • Novel bioprocessing approaches for the cultivation and extraction of marine biotoxins.
  • Potential applications of marine biotoxins in medicine, agriculture, and industry.
  • The ecological roles and environmental impacts of these bioactive compounds.

This Special Issue is designed to foster collaboration between researchers in marine biology, biotechnology, chemistry, and environmental sciences, offering a multidisciplinary platform to advance our understanding of marine biotoxins and their potential for future biotechnological innovations.

Prof. Dr. Juan Jose Gallardo Rodriguez
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • marine toxins
  • dinoflagellates
  • harmful algae
  • bioprocesses
  • bioaccumulation
  • allelopathy

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 5303 KB  
Article
Development of an Automated Cell-Based Assay for the Detection of the Functional Activity of Saxitoxin
by Rachel Whiting, Isobel Picken, Grace Howells, A. Christopher Green, Chris Elliott and Graeme C. Clark
Toxins 2026, 18(5), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18050206 - 29 Apr 2026
Viewed by 810
Abstract
Saxitoxin (STX) is one of the most potent natural neurotoxins known and is the only marine toxin to be declared a chemical weapon. In both marine and freshwater systems filter feeding organisms can accumulate saxitoxin and human consumption of toxin-contaminated food can result [...] Read more.
Saxitoxin (STX) is one of the most potent natural neurotoxins known and is the only marine toxin to be declared a chemical weapon. In both marine and freshwater systems filter feeding organisms can accumulate saxitoxin and human consumption of toxin-contaminated food can result in paralytic shellfish poisoning. Here we highlight for the first time a human cell-based assay for the detection and neutralisation of STX activity on an automated patch clamp (APC) system. We demonstrate that a human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell line expressing human Nav1.6 can rapidly and sensitively detect the presence of a range of sodium ion channel blockers including STX. The use of neutralising monoclonal antibody GT13-A and/or saxiphilin was found to confer specificity to the assay by being able to dissociate between STX (along with closely related analogues) and tetrodotoxin. Finally, the application of the functional assay for the detection of STX in complex samples was evaluated during an international exercise led by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW). The neutralisation of STX activity in blinded samples enabled the indirect detection of the toxin in the relevant samples and provided an alternative orthogonal technique to corroborate the findings of liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Collectively this work demonstrates the significant potential for functional assays in the analysis of samples suspected of being contaminated with STX and related sodium ion channel targeting toxins; complementing traditional direct identification methods such as high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD), LC-MS or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins: Bioactivities, Identification, and Potential Bioprocesses)
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16 pages, 3119 KB  
Article
Sequential UV-C Irradiation and Sphingopyxis sp. m6 Biodegradation for Enhanced Degradation and Detoxification of Microcystin-LR
by Qin Ding, Tongtong Liu, Zhuoxiao Li, Rongli Sun, Juan Zhang, Lihong Yin and Yuepu Pu
Toxins 2026, 18(3), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18030136 - 10 Mar 2026
Viewed by 600
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs), a group of potent hepatotoxins from cyanobacterial blooms, threaten global water security due to the resistance to conventional treatment processes and multi-organ toxicity to human. This study innovatively proposed a novel sequential process combining UV irradiation with biodegradation by Sphingopyxis sp. [...] Read more.
Microcystins (MCs), a group of potent hepatotoxins from cyanobacterial blooms, threaten global water security due to the resistance to conventional treatment processes and multi-organ toxicity to human. This study innovatively proposed a novel sequential process combining UV irradiation with biodegradation by Sphingopyxis sp. m6 for efficient microcystin-LR (MC-LR) removal. Results revealed that sequential UV-C pretreatment followed by Sphingopyxis sp. m6 biodegradation achieved complete degradation of 1 mg/L of MC-LR within 1 h of the biological phase, drastically reducing the treatment time compared to biodegradation alone (5 h). Mechanistic investigation revealed that low-dose UV-C (50 mJ/cm2) pretreatment induced MC-LR photoisomerization consistently with previously reported Adda geometric isomers. These photoisomers, along with residual parent MC-LR, were subsequently mineralized by Sphingopyxis sp. m6. Enzymatic pathway analysis confirmed a dual-pathway degradation, where Mlr enzymes processed both the native toxin and its isomeric forms, leading to a series of linearized peptides and Adda-derived products. Critically, the process achieved efficient detoxification, as confirmed by the restoration of HepG2 cell proliferation and protein phosphatase 2A activity. Moreover, response surface methodology optimized the key parameters (31.49 °C, pH of 7.36, 0.23 mg/L) for the highest degradation efficiency. This work provides an energy- and cost-efficient strategy for MC-LR remediation and elucidates the molecular mechanism of UV-induced photoisomerization facilitating subsequent biodegradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins: Bioactivities, Identification, and Potential Bioprocesses)
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13 pages, 4531 KB  
Article
Deciphering the Neurotoxic Effects of Karenia selliformis
by Ambbar Aballay-González, Jessica Panes-Fernández, Catharina Alves-de-Souza, Bernd Krock, Juan José Gallardo-Rodríguez, Nicole Espinoza-Rubilar, Jorge Fuentealba and Allisson Astuya-Villalón
Toxins 2025, 17(2), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17020092 - 15 Feb 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2208
Abstract
Karenia selliformis is a globally recognized dinoflagellate associated with harmful algal blooms and massive fish kills along southern Chilean coasts. Its toxicity varies with environmental factors and genetic diversity. While K. selliformis is traditionally linked to neurotoxins like gymnodimines (GYMs), analysis of the [...] Read more.
Karenia selliformis is a globally recognized dinoflagellate associated with harmful algal blooms and massive fish kills along southern Chilean coasts. Its toxicity varies with environmental factors and genetic diversity. While K. selliformis is traditionally linked to neurotoxins like gymnodimines (GYMs), analysis of the strain CREAN-KS02 from Chile’s Aysén Region (43° S) revealed no presence of toxins associated with this genus, such as gymnodimines, brevetoxins, or brevenal. Given the high toxicity and impact on marine life, our study aimed to functionally characterize the neurotoxic metabolites in the exudate of K. selliformis cultures. Cytotoxicity was evaluated using a Neuro-2a cell-based assay (CBA), determining an IC50 of 2.41 ± 0.02 μg mL−1. The incubation of Neuro-2a cells with the bioactive lipophilic extract obtained from the exudate of K. selliformis and the ouabain/veratridine couple showed activation of voltage-gated ion channels. Electrophysiological recordings on cultured mouse hippocampal neurons showed that the extract increased cell excitability in a dose-dependent manner, modulating action potential firing and exhibiting an opposed effect to tetrodotoxin. These findings indicate the presence of excitatory neurotoxic compounds affecting mammalian cells. This study provides the first mechanistic evidence of K. selliformis toxicity and highlights potential risks associated with its proliferation in marine environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins: Bioactivities, Identification, and Potential Bioprocesses)
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16 pages, 6122 KB  
Article
First Report of Accumulation of Lyngbyatoxin-A in Edible Shellfish in Aotearoa New Zealand from Marine Benthic Cyanobacteria
by Laura Biessy, Jonathan Puddick, Susanna A. Wood, Andrew I. Selwood, Megan Carbines and Kirsty F. Smith
Toxins 2024, 16(12), 522; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16120522 - 3 Dec 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2810
Abstract
This study reports the first documented accumulation of lyngbyatoxin-a (LTA), a cyanotoxin produced by marine benthic cyanobacteria, in edible shellfish in Aotearoa New Zealand. The study investigates two bloom events in 2022 and 2023 on Waiheke Island, where hundreds of tonnes of marine [...] Read more.
This study reports the first documented accumulation of lyngbyatoxin-a (LTA), a cyanotoxin produced by marine benthic cyanobacteria, in edible shellfish in Aotearoa New Zealand. The study investigates two bloom events in 2022 and 2023 on Waiheke Island, where hundreds of tonnes of marine benthic cyanobacterial mats (mBCMs) washed ashore each summer. Genetic analysis identified the cyanobacterium responsible for the blooms as Okeania sp., a genus typically found in tropical marine ecosystems. Analysis by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry indicated that the cyanobacteria produced a potent dermatoxin, lyngbyatoxin-a (LTA), and that LTA had accumulated in marine snails, rock oysters and cockles collected near the mats. Snails contained the highest levels of LTA (up to 10,500 µg kg−1). The study also demonstrated that the LTA concentration was stable in composted mats for several months. The presence of LTA in edible species and its stability over time raise concerns about the potential health risks to humans consuming LTA-contaminated seafood. This underlines the need for further studies assessing the risks of human exposure to LTA through seafood consumption, particularly as climate change and eutrophication are expected to increase the frequency of mBCM blooms. The study highlights the need to develop public health risk management strategies for mBCMs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins: Bioactivities, Identification, and Potential Bioprocesses)
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Review

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24 pages, 1940 KB  
Review
Toxin Accumulation, Distribution, and Sources of Toxic Xanthid Crabs
by Yuchengmin Zhang, Hongchen Zhu, Tomohiro Takatani and Osamu Arakawa
Toxins 2025, 17(5), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins17050228 - 5 May 2025
Viewed by 5563
Abstract
Several species of crabs from the Xanthidae family are recognized as dangerous marine organisms due to their potent neurotoxins, including paralytic shellfish toxin (PST), tetrodotoxin (TTX), and palytoxin (PLTX). However, the mechanisms of toxin accumulation and transport and the origin of these toxins [...] Read more.
Several species of crabs from the Xanthidae family are recognized as dangerous marine organisms due to their potent neurotoxins, including paralytic shellfish toxin (PST), tetrodotoxin (TTX), and palytoxin (PLTX). However, the mechanisms of toxin accumulation and transport and the origin of these toxins in toxic xanthid crabs remain unknown. The identification of toxic crab species, their toxicity and toxin composition, and toxin profiles have been studied thus far. To date, more than ten species of xanthid crabs have been confirmed to possess toxins. Recently, several new studies on crabs, including the geographic distribution of toxin profiles and the ecological role of crabs, have been reported. Therefore, this review provides a summary of global research on toxic xanthid crabs, containing new findings and hypotheses on the toxification in and the origins of these crabs. Furthermore, the challenges and future perspectives in this field are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Marine Biotoxins: Bioactivities, Identification, and Potential Bioprocesses)
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