Research

Open AccessArticle

A Malware Detection Approach Based on Deep Learning and Memory Forensics

by

Shuhui Zhang

,

Changdong Hu

,

Lianhai Wang

,

Miodrag J. Mihaljevic

,

Shujiang Xu

and

Tian Lan

Symmetry 2023, 15(3), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym15030758 - 19 Mar 2023

Viewed by 510

Abstract

As cyber attacks grow more complex and sophisticated, new types of malware become more dangerous and challenging to detect. In particular, fileless malware injects malicious code into the physical memory directly without leaving attack traces on disk files. This type of attack is [...] Read more.

As cyber attacks grow more complex and sophisticated, new types of malware become more dangerous and challenging to detect. In particular, fileless malware injects malicious code into the physical memory directly without leaving attack traces on disk files. This type of attack is well concealed, and it is difficult to find the malicious code in the static files. For malicious processes in memory, signature-based detection methods are becoming increasingly ineffective. Facing these challenges, this paper proposes a malware detection approach based on convolutional neural network and memory forensics. As the malware has many symmetric features, the saved training model can detect malicious code with symmetric features. The method includes collecting executable static malicious and benign samples, running the collected samples in a sandbox, and building a dataset of portable executables in memory through memory forensics. When a process is running, not all the program content is loaded into memory, so binary fragments are utilized for malware analysis instead of the entire portable executable (PE) files. PE file fragments are selected with different lengths and locations. We conducted several experiments on the produced dataset to test our model. The PE file with 4096 bytes of header fragment has the highest accuracy. We achieved a prediction accuracy of up to 97.48%. Moreover, an example of fileless attack is illustrated at the end of the paper. The results show that the proposed method can detect malicious codes effectively, especially the fileless attack. Its accuracy is better than that of common machine learning methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

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Open AccessArticle

An Approach for Blockchain and Symmetric Keys Broadcast Encryption Based Access Control in IoT

by

Miodrag J. Mihaljević

,

,

,

and

Symmetry 2023, 15(2), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym15020299 - 21 Jan 2023

Viewed by 589

Abstract

This paper considers the problem of data access control when the subscribers are IoT devices with initialization that cannot be updated during the entire life cycle. A generic framework and a particular instance for conditional data access control within IoT are proposed. The [...] Read more.

This paper considers the problem of data access control when the subscribers are IoT devices with initialization that cannot be updated during the entire life cycle. A generic framework and a particular instance for conditional data access control within IoT are proposed. The generic framework is based on the employment of a dedicated secret key-based broadcast encryption scheme where encrypted credentials for conditional data access is available in the blockchain and encrypted data subject to conditional access are available in an off-chain source of streaming data. Reduction of the keys management overhead in comparison with a straightforward decryption keys delivery is experimentally illustrated. An instance of the proposed framework built over the Ethereum blockchain platform is developed and experimentally evaluated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

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Open AccessArticle

Controlling the Difficulty of Combinatorial Optimization Problems for Fair Proof-of-Useful-Work-Based Blockchain Consensus Protocol

by

Uroš Maleš

,

Dušan Ramljak

,

Tatjana Jakšić Krüger

,

Tatjana Davidović

,

Dragutin Ostojić

and

Abhay Haridas

Symmetry 2023, 15(1), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym15010140 - 03 Jan 2023

Viewed by 714

Abstract

The wide range of Blockchain (BC) applications and BC’s ubiquity come from the fact that BC, as a collection of records linked to each other, is strongly resistant to alteration, protected using cryptography, and maintained autonomously. All these benefits come with a cost, [...] Read more.

The wide range of Blockchain (BC) applications and BC’s ubiquity come from the fact that BC, as a collection of records linked to each other, is strongly resistant to alteration, protected using cryptography, and maintained autonomously. All these benefits come with a cost, which in BC is expressed by a very high use of energy needed to execute consensus protocols. Traditionally, consensus protocols based on Proof-of-Work (PoW) ensure fairness, but are not very useful. The paradigm proposed in the recent literature, known as Proof-of-Useful-Work (PoUW), assumes the completion of additional useful work for the same amount of resources (energy) used. However, the majority of the proposed PoUW approaches do not adequately consider fairness in balancing and controlling the difficulty of the work miners need to perform. A minority of the studies that do address fairness in miners’ work utilize PoW as a tool to ensure it. Therefore, a general framework to provide a structure for understanding the difficulty of useful work and how it can be used to fine-tune the complexity of miners’ effort in PoUW-based consensus protocols is proposed in this paper. The main characteristic of the proposed framework is that controlling the difficulty and fairness of miners’ work in PoUW-based consensus protocols is achieved exclusively through the useful work. The modules of the framework are discussed, and many research challenges and opportunities are articulated. The benefits of the proposed approach are illustrated taking as an example two optimization algorithms for a variant of the scheduling problem. In addition, the steps that should be taken to make this general framework applicable to any PoUW-based consensus protocols are identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

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Open AccessArticle

New Identified Strategies to Forge Multivariate Signature Schemes

by

Nurul Amiera Sakinah Abdul Jamal

,

Muhammad Rezal Kamel Ariffin

,

Siti Hasana Sapar

and

Kamilah Abdullah

Symmetry 2022, 14(11), 2368; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14112368 - 10 Nov 2022

Viewed by 583

Abstract

A rogue certificate authority (RCA) is a dishonest entity that has the trust of web browsers and users to produce valid key pairs which are vulnerable. This work analyses two acknowledged post-quantum secure Multivariate Quadratic Problem (MQP) based signature schemes, namely the UOV [...] Read more.

A rogue certificate authority (RCA) is a dishonest entity that has the trust of web browsers and users to produce valid key pairs which are vulnerable. This work analyses two acknowledged post-quantum secure Multivariate Quadratic Problem (MQP) based signature schemes, namely the UOV and Rainbow signature schemes that obtain their key pair from a potential RCA methodology. We revisit two and provide a novel RCA methodology that would enable adversaries to forge UOV and Rainbow signatures. We also lay out two strategies to identify whether the public parameters are generated by the first two methodologies. To this end, strategies to identify the third strategy remain elusive. As such, the UOV and Rainbow schemes remain vulnerable to forgery if it was forged via the third methodology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

Open AccessArticle

Proof-of-Useful-Work: BlockChain Mining by Solving Real-Life Optimization Problems

by

,

,

,

,

,

Tatjana Jakšić Krüger

and

Đorđe Jovanović

Symmetry 2022, 14(9), 1831; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14091831 - 03 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1140

Abstract

Blockchains (BCs) are distributed database systems, popular for their innovative, unsupervised maintenance process. They use a so-called consensus protocol to prevent inference by any third party of absolute trust. Security, privacy, consistency, and energy consumption have been identified as the main issues involved [...] Read more.

Blockchains (BCs) are distributed database systems, popular for their innovative, unsupervised maintenance process. They use a so-called consensus protocol to prevent inference by any third party of absolute trust. Security, privacy, consistency, and energy consumption have been identified as the main issues involved in BC maintenance. According to the recent literature, some of these issues can be formulated as combinatorial optimization (CO) problems, and this fact motivated us to consider incorporating CO approaches into a BC. In this paper, we propose the new combinatorial optimization consensus protocol (COCP) based on the proof-of-useful-work (PoUW) concept that assumes solving instances of real-life CO problems. Due to the complexity of the underlying CO problems, we have developed various types of heuristic methods, which are utilized in the COCP. Most of these methods are problem-dependent stochastic heuristic or metaheuristic methods. As is the case with the majority of consensus protocols, PoUW exhibits the property of asymmetry. It is difficult to find a solution for the considered CO problem; however, once a solution is found, its verification is straightforward. We present here a BC framework combining the two above-mentioned fields of research: BC and CO. This framework consists of improvements aiming towards developing the COCP of the PoUW type. The main advantage of this consensus protocol is the efficient utilization of computing resources (by exploring them for finding solutions of real-life CO problem instances), and the provision of a broad range of incentives for the various BC participants. We enumerate the potential benefits of the COCP with respect to its practical impacts and savings in power consumption, describing in detail an illustrative example based on part of the real-life BC network. In addition, we identify several challenges that should be resolved in order to implement a useful, secure, and efficient PoUW consensus protocol. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

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Open AccessArticle

A Blockchain-Based Anti-Counterfeit and Traceable NBA Digital Trading Card Management System

by

,

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,

,

,

and

Symmetry 2022, 14(9), 1827; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14091827 - 02 Sep 2022

Viewed by 752

Abstract

NBA (National Basketball Association) trading cards are a hot collector’s item, with sales increasing rapidly every year. However, with the popularity of online trading, some sellers have started to intentionally and unintentionally sell imitation trading cards, and even PwC (Pricewaterhouse Coopers) is not [...] Read more.

NBA (National Basketball Association) trading cards are a hot collector’s item, with sales increasing rapidly every year. However, with the popularity of online trading, some sellers have started to intentionally and unintentionally sell imitation trading cards, and even PwC (Pricewaterhouse Coopers) is not immune. However, the PSA (Professional Sports Authenticator), which is the authentication agency, is not liable for this. Faced with the above situation, we moved trading cards online and proposed a blockchain-based anti-counterfeit and traceable NBA digital trading card management system, using blockchain technology to protect digital trading cards, and special digital copyright, to move from relying on other regulators to achieve the fight against counterfeit cards and maintain the security of the digital trading card market. Finally, we analyzed the security of the system and compared it with other methods. Our system uses Hyperledger Fabric to share data while protecting corporate privacy. Proxy re-encryption enables secure and trusted access authorization for digital transaction cards. Asymmetric encryption protects the data and uses signatures to achieve traceability and non-repudiation. Overall, our system solves the problem of counterfeiting and traceability that can occur in the digital trading card process from production to purchase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

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Open AccessArticle

An Efficient Identification Scheme Based on Bivariate Function Hard Problem

by

Boon Chian Tea

,

Muhammad Rezal Kamel Ariffin

,

Amir Hamzah Abd Ghafar

,

Siti Hasana Sapar

and

Mohamat Aidil Mohamat Johari

Symmetry 2022, 14(9), 1784; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14091784 - 27 Aug 2022

Viewed by 579

Abstract

Symmetric cryptography allows faster and more secure communication between two entities using the identical pre-established secret key. However, identifying the honest entity with the same secret key before initiating symmetric encryption is vital since the communication may be impersonated. Tea and Ariffin, in [...] Read more.

Symmetric cryptography allows faster and more secure communication between two entities using the identical pre-established secret key. However, identifying the honest entity with the same secret key before initiating symmetric encryption is vital since the communication may be impersonated. Tea and Ariffin, in 2014, proposed a new identification (ID) scheme based on the Bivariate Function Hard Problem (BFHP) that proved secure against impersonation under passive, active and concurrent attacks via the BFHP-hardness assumption. In this paper, we upgrade the ID scheme and improve some of its settings. Next, we provide the security proof against impersonation under active and concurrent attacks in the random oracle model via the hardness assumption of the One-More BFHP. Finally, we include an additional discussion about the computational efficiency of the upgraded ID scheme based on BFHP and present its comparison with other selected ID schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

Open AccessArticle

Cryptanalysis of RSA-Variant Cryptosystem Generated by Potential Rogue CA Methodology

by

Zahari Mahad

,

Muhammad Rezal Kamel Ariffin

,

Amir Hamzah Abd. Ghafar

and

Nur Raidah Salim

Symmetry 2022, 14(8), 1498; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym14081498 - 22 Jul 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 574

Abstract

Rogue certificate authorities (RCA) are third-party entities that intentionally produce key pairs that satisfy publicly known security requirements but contain weaknesses only known to the RCA. This work analyses the Murru–Saettone RSA variant scheme that obtains its key pair from a potential RCA [...] Read more.

Rogue certificate authorities (RCA) are third-party entities that intentionally produce key pairs that satisfy publicly known security requirements but contain weaknesses only known to the RCA. This work analyses the Murru–Saettone RSA variant scheme that obtains its key pair from a potential RCA methodology. The Murru–Saettone scheme is based on the cubic Pell equation

x^{3} + r y^{3} + r^{2} z^{3} - 3 r x y z = 1

. The public, e, and private, d key generation process uses the secret parameter

ψ = (p^{2} + p + 1) (q^{2} + q + 1)

in place of the standard Euler–phi function

ϕ (N) = (p - 1) (q - 1)

, where

e d \equiv 1 (mod ψ)

. We prove that, upon obtaining an approximation of

ψ

, we are able to identify the provided key pair that was maliciously provided even if the private key d size is approximate to

ψ

. In fact, we are able to factor the modulus

N = p q

. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Multidisciplinary Exploration for Symmetric Key Cryptography and Blockchain Technology)

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