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Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports

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A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 November 2023) | Viewed by 26138

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Prof. Dr. Cristina Cortis

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Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Lazio Meridionale, Viale dell’Università, 03043 Cassino, Italy
Interests: sport performance; performance analysis; fitness assessment; recovery and stress; determinants of physical activity; dual career in athletes
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Dr. Sabrina Demarie

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Department of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, Università degli Studi di Roma ″Foro Italico″, 00135 Roma, Italy
Interests: athlete’s health; athlete’s stress management; training monitoring; performance analysis
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Water-based exercise and swimming combine upper and lower extremity strength exercises with cardiovascular training in a non-weight bearing environment and offer many physical and mental health profits. Parents of children with developmental disabilities can expand their family connections. Pregnant women can improve their physical and mental health. Older adults and people with diabetes and heart disease can improve their quality of life and decrease disability. Swimmers have about half the risk of death compared with inactive people. On the other hand, competitive swimmers undergo daily high-volume extensive swimming and high-intensity refinement training sessions that lead them to be prone to injuries mostly classed as overuse and relate to faulty biomechanics. A deep understanding of individual swimming biomechanics and training load can aid in the prevention and early recognition of symptoms. A detailed profile of athletes’ physical fitness can allow the determination of the underlying performance qualities for optimal training plans. The assessment of the effects of recreational water-based exercise on mental and physical fitness can offer the basis for the development of a wide range of health-related exercise programs associated with quality of life.

Prof. Dr. Cristina Cortis
Dr. Sabrina Demarie
Guest Editors

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Keywords

water-based exercise
swimming
physical health
mental health
exercise for health
athletes’ health
fitness tests
training monitoring
training individualization

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

11 pages, 639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Training Sets Sequence on Swimming Performance, Training Load and Physiological Responses

by Ioannis S. Nikitakis, Gregory C. Bogdanis, Giorgos P. Paradisis and Argyris G. Toubekis

Sports 2023, 11(12), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11120240 - 4 Dec 2023

Viewed by 2236

Abstract

The study examined the effect of set sequence on performance and physiological responses in a training session and in each set separately. Twelve male swimmers performed four sessions in a randomized order, including a combination of two training sets: (i) set A-set C, (ii) set C-set A, (iii) set B-set C, (iv) set C-set B. Set A consisted of 8 × 200 m at a speed corresponding to lactate threshold (30 s recovery), set B included 8 × 100 m at the maximal aerobic speed (30 s recovery), set C included 8 × 50 m sprints at 95% of the maximum 50 m speed (30 s recovery). Speed, blood lactate, pH, base excess, bicarbonate and heart rate variability (HRV) were measured. Speed in each set was similar between sessions irrespective of set sequence (p > 0.05). Physiological responses during sets A and C were similar in all sessions (p > 0.05). In set B, when applied after set C, the metabolic response increased, and HRV decreased (p < 0.05). Overall, session biochemical disturbance was higher when set C was applied before sets A and B (p < 0.05). The magnitude of metabolic and HRV responses in a set conducted at maximal aerobic speed, but not at lactate threshold intensity, is increased when applied after sprint intervals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

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13 pages, 2010 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Ultra-Short Race Pace and High-Intensity Interval Training in Age Group Competitive Swimmers

by Konstantinos Papadimitriou, Athanasios Kabasakalis, Anastasios Papadopoulos, Georgios Mavridis and Georgios Tsalis

Sports 2023, 11(9), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11090186 - 18 Sep 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3993

Abstract

The aim of this study was tο examine the acute responses to an Ultra-Short Race Pace Training (USRPT) and a High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), both oriented for the event of 100 m freestyle. Eighteen national-level swimmers (8 boys, 10 girls) aged 13.5 ± 0.1 years, with 8.0 ± 0.5 years of experience participated in the study. All participants completed a USRPT and a HIIT protocol consisting of 2 × 10 × 25 m (USRPT1 & USRPT2) and 5 × 50 m. Significantly higher swimming velocity (SV) were achieved in USRPT compared to HIIT (p < 0.001), while significantly lower distance per stroke (DPS) and stroke index (SI) were obtained (p = 0.007 and p < 0.001). Also, significantly lower blood lactate and glucose (BL & BG) concentrations were found after USRPT (p ≤ 0.001 and p = 0.037). Heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) were significantly lower after USRPT than HIIT (p < 0.001 and p = 0.015). According to the results, an USRPT swimming set consisting of 20 × 25 m at a 100 m pace seems to induce more specific responses in kinematic characteristics, biomarkers, HR and RPE compared to a 5 × 50 m HIIT set. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

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9 pages, 1247 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shoulder, Trunk, and Hip Sagittal Plane Kinematics during Stand-Up Paddle Boarding

by Jamie E. Hibbert, Corina Kaufman and Deanna J. Schmidt

Sports 2023, 11(8), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11080152 - 13 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1791

Abstract

Stand-up paddle boarding (SUP) as both a competitive and recreational sport has grown in popularity over the last decade. Better understanding paddling kinematics is beneficial for both injury prevention and informing coaching practices in this growing sport. The purpose of this study was to analyze sagittal plane kinematics during both standing and kneeling paddling postures commonly adopted by injury-free, recreational SUP participants. Eighteen recreational SUP participants (seven males/eleven females) were asked to complete a series of paddling tasks on a SUP ergometer in two postures, during which kinematic data were acquired. Sagittal plane kinematic data were analyzed for joint excursion, or range of motion used, while paddling on both sides of the body in each posture. Analysis of variance was used to compare joint excursions across tasks. There were no significant differences in hip or trunk sagittal plant excursion between postures. However, there was significantly greater sagittal plane excursion at the shoulder in the kneeling as compared to the standing posture with the shoulder opposite the paddling side demonstrating the greatest total excursion. These results help establish the parameters of the paddling technique currently in use among injury-free SUP participants and may be used in the future to inform coaching practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

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9 pages, 255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blood Lactate and Maximal Lactate Accumulation Rate at Three Sprint Swimming Distances in Highly Trained and Elite Swimmers

by Maria Mavroudi, Athanasios Kabasakalis, Anatoli Petridou and Vassilis Mougios

Sports 2023, 11(4), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11040087 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4644

Abstract

We examined the blood lactate response, in terms of the maximal post-exercise concentration (La_max), time to reach La_max, and maximal lactate accumulation rate (VLa_max), to swimming sprints of 25, 35, and 50 m. A total of 14 highly trained and elite swimmers (8 male and 6 female), aged 14–32, completed the 3 sprints in their specialization stroke with 30 min of passive rest in between. The blood lactate was measured right before and continually (every minute) after each sprint to detect the La_max. The VLa_max, a potential index of anaerobic lactic power, was calculated. The blood lactate concentration, swimming speed, and VLa_max differed between the sprints (p < 0.001). The La_max was highest after 50 m (13.8 ± 2.6 mmol·L^–1, mean ± SD throughout), while the swimming speed and VLa_max were highest at 25 m (2.16 ± 0.25 m·s^–1 and 0.75 ± 0.18 mmol·L^–1·s^–1). The lactate peaked approximately 2 min after all the sprints. The VLa_max in each sprint correlated positively with the speed and with each other. In conclusion, the correlation of the swimming speed with the VLa_max suggests that the VLa_max is an index of anaerobic lactic power and that it is possible to improve performance by augmenting the VLa_max through appropriate training. To accurately measure the La_max and, hence, the VLa_max, we recommend starting blood sampling one minute after exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

11 pages, 610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability and Validity of a Flume-Based Maximal Oxygen Uptake Swimming Test

by Elizabeth F. Nagle, Takashi Nagai, Anne Beethe, Mita Lovalekar, Meghan S. Tuite, Meaghan E. Beckner, Jacquelyn N. Zera, Mary E. Sanders, Chris Connaboy, John P. Abt, Kim Beals, Scott M. Lephart, Robert J. Robertson and Bradley C. Nindl

Sports 2023, 11(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11020042 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2233

Abstract

A mode-specific swimming protocol to assess maximal aerobic uptake (VO₂max_sw) is vital to accurately evaluate swimming performance. A need exists for reliable and valid swimming protocols that assess VO₂max_sw in a flume environment. The purpose was to assess: (a) reliability and (b) “performance” validity of a VO₂max_sw flume protocol using the 457-m freestyle pool performance swim (PS) test as the criterion. Nineteen males (n = 9) and females (n = 10) (age, 28.5 ± 8.3 years.; height, 174.7 ± 8.2 cm; mass, 72.9 ± 12.5 kg; %body fat, 21.4 ± 5.9) performed two flume VO₂max_sw tests (VO₂max_swA and VO₂max_swB) and one PS test [457 m (469.4 ± 94.7 s)]. For test–retest reliability (Trials A vs. B), moderately strong relationships were established for VO₂max_sw (mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹)(r= 0.628, p = 0.002), O₂pulse (mL O₂·beat⁻¹)(r = 0.502, p = 0.014), VEmax (L·min⁻¹) (r = 0.671, p = 0.001), final test time (sec) (0.608, p = 0.004), and immediate post-test blood lactate (IPE (BLa)) (0.716, p = 0.001). For performance validity, moderately strong relationships (p < 0.05) were found between VO₂max_swA (r =−0.648, p = 0.005), O₂pulse (r= −0.623, p = 0.008), VEmax (r = −0.509 p = 0.037), and 457-m swim times. The swimming flume protocol examined is a reliable and valid assessment of VO₂max_sw., and offers an alternative for military, open water, or those seeking complementary forms of training to improve swimming performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

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14 pages, 890 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Which of the Physiological vs. Critical Speed Is a Determinant of Modern Pentathlon 200 m Front Crawl Swimming Performance: The Influence of Protocol and Ergometer vs. Swimming Pool Conditions

by Sabrina Demarie, Emanuele Chirico and Veronique Billat

Sports 2022, 10(12), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports10120201 - 6 Dec 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2532

Abstract

Background: Modern pentathlon includes horse riding, fencing, swimming, shooting and cross-country running. Events can last many hours during which the athletes face almost maximal energy and physiological demands, and fatigue. Early recognition and prevention of injuries and overuse syndromes can be achieved by refining the individual training loads. The purpose of the study was to determine which parameter could be the most accurate predictor of swimming working capacity determinants in pentathletes. Methods: Fourteen male pentathletes performed a continuous maximal incremental test in the swimming flume ergometer to measure peak oxygen uptake (VO₂peak), and five swimming tests in a 50 m swimming pool to detect critical velocity (CV); velocity at 2 and 4 mM·L⁻¹ of blood lactate (v2, v4) and energy cost (EC). Results: The 200 m swimming time was 2:18–2:32 m:s (340 FINA points). CV was 1.21 ± 0.04 m·s⁻¹, v2 was 1.14 ± 0.09 and v4 1.23 ± 0.08 m·s⁻¹. VO₂peak was 3540.1 ± 306.2 mL·min⁻¹ or 48.8 ± 4.6 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹. EC at 1.24 m·s⁻¹ was 45.7 ± 2.4 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹. Our main finding was the large correlation of CV with 200 m swimming performance; Conclusions: Among all the protocols analysed, CV is the most predictive and discriminative of individual swimming performance in this group of pentathletes. It appears as the most suitable test to constantly refine their swimming training loads for both performance enhancement and health promotion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

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7 pages, 237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolic and Performance Responses to a Simulated Routine in Elite Artistic Swimmers

by David J. Bentley, Eric Viana and Heather M. Logan-Sprenger

Sports 2022, 10(12), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports10120190 - 25 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2069

Abstract

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the interrelationship between time spent underwater (UW), movement frequency and accompanying blood acid base balance response. Elite artistic swimmers (n = 6) participated in the investigation and were all familiar with the testing procedures. All athletes completed the same choreographed artistic swimming routine. The routine was videoed and the number of movements during each ‘lap’ of the routine counted. Fingertip capillary blood samples were collected prior to the routine 60 sec post routine for pH, partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2), partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) and potassium (K+). and lactate (La) concentration (mmol/L). On a separate day an incremental exercise test to exhaustion was performed on a cycle ergometer for determination of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Over half the routine was performed underwater (56 ± 4%). Aside from pCO2 (−1.07 ± 12.29%, p = 0.686), there were significant changes in all variables measured from the BG analysis. VO2peak was significantly correlated to total UW of the routine (r = −0.93; p = 0.007). as well as ∆PO2 r = 0.47 and ∆HCO3 r = 0.51. There was also a significant correlation between total UW and post routine pCO2 (r = 0.86; p = 0.030). There was also a significant correlation between total movements during the routine and post pO2 (r = −0.83; p = 0.044). These data show UW in combination with movement rate during a AS routine imfluence the metabolic response to the exercise. In addition, VO2max represents an important performance variable influencing AS performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

12 pages, 1513 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Short-Term Effects of Land-Based Versus Water-Based Resistance Training Protocols on Post-Exercise Hypotension in Normotensive Men: A Crossover Study

by Gabriela Barreto David, Gustavo Zaccaria Schaun, Amanda Ricardo Mendes, Gabriela Neves Nunes, Danilo Sales Bocalini, Stephanie Santana Pinto and Cristine Lima Alberton

Sports 2022, 10(11), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports10110181 - 17 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1971

Abstract

Considering that water immersion may acutely reduce blood pressure (BP) and that exercise may elicit positive post-exercise hypotension (PEH) responses, we aimed to analyze the presence of PEH in normotensive individuals and compare its magnitude between two resistance training sessions performed in aquatic or land environments. Ten physically active men (23.2 ± 3.1 years) performed the two training protocols in a randomized, counterbalanced fashion. BP measurements were performed for 30 min (at 5 min intervals) both prior to (resting) and after each of the protocols. No differences were observed between protocols at baseline (p > 0.05). Only the water-based resistance training protocol resulted in a systolic BP reduction from 10 to 20 min post-exercise (all p < 0.05) compared to baseline. Compared to the land-based session, systolic BP was lower in the water-based protocol from 10 to 25 min post-exercise (all p < 0.05). On the other hand, diastolic BP showed a similar PEH effect between water and land-based protocols for the entire 30 min post-session period (all p < 0.001). Our results suggest that water-based resistance training holds the potential as a nonpharmacological strategy to lower BP levels following exercise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

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10 pages, 505 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Consumption of Water Running and Cycling at Four Exercise Intensities

by Sabrina Demarie, Emanuele Chirico, Cecilia Bratta and Cristina Cortis

Sports 2022, 10(6), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports10060090 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2847

Abstract

Water exercise provides a workload in every direction of motion for training in a reduced impact environment. The selection of an appropriate physical activity and an individual exercise prescription are essential to obtain training effects. The aim of the present study was to determine individualised relative exercise intensities at four speeds of motion for water cycling and water running. Running was tested both in buoyancy and with the feet in contact with the bottom of the pool. To this purpose, gas exchanges, heart rate, and blood lactate were measured in each test session. Fourteen active, healthy females (23.2 ± 1.6 years) underwent a dry land maximal incremental protocol to exhaustion on a treadmill and hydrobike (HB); they engaged in water running with ground contact (RC) and water running suspended (RS) tests in a swimming pool at 30, 40, 50, and 60 cycles per minute (cpm), submerged at the individual xiphoid level. The four motion speeds of the three water exercise modalities ranged from 50% to 95% of the maximal heart rate and the maximal oxygen uptake, representing a moderate-to-vigorous training stimulus. RS elicited the lowest oxygen consumption, whereas HB demanded the significantly highest oxygen consumption and presented the highest blood lactate accumulation, with vigorous intensity being reached at 50 cpm and near maximal intensity at 60 cpm. It appears that water cycling could be more suitable for athletic training, whereas water running could be more appropriate for health and fitness purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Health and Performance of Water Based Exercise and Sports)

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