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Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Physical Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2020) | Viewed by 42596

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Prof. Dr. Omar Elmazria

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Guest Editor

Institut Jean Lamour, UMR CNRS 7198, Université de Lorraine, F-54000 Nancy, France
Interests: wave propagation; piezoelectricity; surface acoustic waves (SAW) devices for communication systems and sensing applications; surface acoustic waves (SAW) filters and resonators; surface acoustic waves (SAW) sensors

Prof. Dr. Pascal Nicolay

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Carinthia Institute for Smart Materials (CiSMAT), Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Europastrasse 4, 9524 Villach, Austria
Interests: smart materials; green transition; applied physics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Surface acoustic wave sensors have been around for a long time. Over the past years, many research groups have developed surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors for a wide range of applications, including high-temperature, strain, high and low pressure, acceleration, gyroscope, and torque sensors. SAW sensors have also been developed for chemical and bio-chemical applications, including implantable bio-sensors. Many fully- passive and wireless solutions have also been devised for harsh environment applications, due to the intrinsic properties of SAW sensors. Emerging application fields include wearable SAW sensors for bio-medical applications, and implantable SAW sensors for structural health monitoring applications.
The main goal of this Special Issue is to capture the current state-of-the-art and contemporary progress and perspectives of the SAW sensor technology. Both research papers and review articles will be considered. Review papers on each of the main types of SAW sensors are especially welcome. This includes “classical” SAW sensors like resonator- and reflective delay lines for various applications, as well as more advanced solutions based on new or improved materials and multilayered guiding structures.

Prof. Dr. Omar Elmazria
Dr. Pascal Nicolay
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Surface acoustic wave sensor
Wireless and passive sensor
Harsh environment
Implantable sensor
Condition monitoring
Structural health monitoring

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 6694 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Epitaxial Growth of Sc_0.09Al_0.91N and Sc_0.18Al_0.82N Thin Films on Sapphire Substrates by Magnetron Sputtering for Surface Acoustic Waves Applications

by Florian Bartoli, Jérémy Streque, Jaafar Ghanbaja, Philippe Pigeat, Pascal Boulet, Sami Hage-Ali, Natalya Naumenko, A. Redjaïmia, Thierry Aubert and Omar Elmazria

Sensors 2020, 20(16), 4630; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20164630 - 17 Aug 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2748

Abstract

Scandium aluminum nitride (Sc_xAl_1-xN) films are currently intensively studied for surface acoustic waves (SAW) filters and sensors applications, because of the excellent tradeoff they present between high SAW velocity, large piezoelectric properties and wide bandgap for the intermediate compositions with an Sc content between 10 and 20%. In this paper, the growth of Sc_0.09Al_0.91N and Sc_0.18Al_0.82N films on sapphire substrates by sputtering method is investigated. The plasma parameters were optimized, according to the film composition, in order to obtain highly-oriented films. X-ray diffraction rocking-curve measurements show a full width at half maximum below 1.5°. Moreover, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy investigations reveal the epitaxial nature of the growth. Electrical characterizations of the Sc_0.09Al_0.91N/sapphire-based SAW devices show three identified modes. Numerical investigations demonstrate that the intermediate compositions between 10 and 20% of scandium allow for the achievement of SAW devices with an electromechanical coupling coefficient up to 2%, provided the film is combined with electrodes constituted by a metal with a high density. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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14 pages, 3301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

FEM Modeling of the Temperature Influence on the Performance of SAW Sensors Operating at GigaHertz Frequency Range and at High Temperature Up to 500 °C

by Jean Claude Asseko Ondo, Eloi Jean Jacques Blampain, Gaston N’Tchayi Mbourou, Stephan Mc Murtry, Sami Hage-Ali and Omar Elmazria

Sensors 2020, 20(15), 4166; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20154166 - 27 Jul 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2689

Abstract

In this work, we present a two-dimensional Finite Element Method (2D-FEM) model implemented on a commercial software, COMSOL Multiphysics, that is used to predict the high temperature behavior of surface acoustic wave sensors based on layered structures. The model was validated by using a comparative study between experimental and simulated results. Here, surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors consist in one-port synchronous resonators, based on the Pt/AlN/Sapphire structure and operating in the 2.45-GHz Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band. Experimental characterizations were carried out using a specific probe station that can perform calibrated measurements from room temperature to 500 °C. In our model, we consider a pre-validated set of physical constants of AlN and Sapphire and we take into account the existence of propagation losses in the studied structure. Our results show a very good agreement between the simulation and experiments in the full range of investigated temperatures, and for all key parameters of the SAW sensor such as insertion losses, resonance frequency, electromechanical factor of the structure (k²) and quality factor (Q). Our study shows that k² increases with the temperature, while Q decreases. The resonance frequency variation with temperature shows a good linearity, which is very useful for temperature sensing applications. The measured value of the temperature coefficient of frequency (TCF) is equal to −38.6 ppm/°C, which is consistent with the numerical predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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13 pages, 4688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effective Light Beam Modulation by Chirp IDT on a Suspended LiNbO₃ Membrane for 3D Holographic Displays

by Yongbeom Lee and Keekeun Lee

Sensors 2020, 20(4), 1218; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20041218 - 23 Feb 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3277

Abstract

An acousto-optic (AO) holographic display unit based on a suspended waveguide membrane was developed. The AO unit consists of a wide bandwidth chirp interdigital transducer (IDT) on a 20 µm thick suspended crystalline 128° YX LiNbO₃ membrane, a light blocker with a 20 µm hole near the entrance, and an active lens near the exit. The 20 µm thickness of the floating membrane significantly enhanced surface acoustic wave (SAW) confinement. The light blocker was installed in front of the AO unit to enhance the coupling efficiency of the incident light to the waveguide membrane and to remove perturbations to the photodetector during measurement at the exit region. The active lens was vertically attached to the waveguide sidewall to collect the diffracted beam without loss and to modulate the focal length in free space through the applied voltage. As SAWs were radiated from the IDT, a Bragg grating with periodic refractive indexes was formed along the waveguide membrane. The grating diffracted incident light. The deflection angle and phase, and the intensity of the light beam were controlled by the SAW frequency and input power, respectively. The maximum diffraction efficiency achieved was approximately 90% for a 400 MHz SAW. COMSOL simulation and coupling of mode modeling were performed to optimize design parameters and predict device performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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15 pages, 2878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perturbation Analysis of a Multiple Layer Guided Love Wave Sensor in a Viscoelastic Environment

by Tao Wang, Ryan Murphy, Jing Wang, Shyam S. Mohapatra, Subhra Mohapatra and Rasim Guldiken

Sensors 2019, 19(20), 4533; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19204533 - 18 Oct 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2576

Abstract

Surface acoustic wave sensors have the advantage of fast response, low-cost, and wireless interfacing capability and they have been used in the medical analysis, material characterization, and other application fields that immerse the device under a liquid environment. The theoretical analysis of the single guided layer shear horizontal acoustic wave based on the perturbation theory has seen developments that span the past 20 years. However, multiple guided layer systems under a liquid environment have not been thoroughly analyzed by existing theoretical models. A dispersion equation previously derived from a system of three rigidly coupled elastic mass layers is extended and developed in this study with multiple guided layers to analyze how the liquid layer’s properties affect the device’s sensitivity. The combination of the multiple layers to optimize the sensitivity of an acoustic wave sensor is investigated in this study. The Maxwell model of viscoelasticity is applied to represent the liquid layer. A thorough analysis of the complex velocity due to the variations of the liquid layer’s properties and thickness is derived and discussed to optimize multilayer Surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensor design. Numerical simulation of the sensitivity with a liquid layer on top of two guided layers is investigated in this study as well. The parametric investigation was conducted by varying the thicknesses for the liquid layer and the guided layers. The effect of the liquid layer viscosity on the sensitivity of the design is also presented in this study. The two guided layer device can achieve higher sensitivity than the single guided layer counterpart in a liquid environment by optimizing the second guided layer thickness. This perturbation analysis is valuable for Love wave sensor optimization to detect the liquid biological samples and analytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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11 pages, 3239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Love Wave Surface Acoustic Wave Sensor with Laser-Deposited Nanoporous Gold Sensitive Layer

by Cristian Viespe, Valentina Dinca, Gianina Popescu-Pelin and Dana Miu

Sensors 2019, 19(20), 4492; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19204492 - 16 Oct 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2591

Abstract

Laser-deposited gold immobilization layers with different porosities were incorporated into Love Wave Surface Acoustic Wave sensors (LW-SAWs). Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme was immobilized onto three gold interfaces with different morphologies, and the sensor response to chloroform was measured. The response of the sensors to various chloroform concentrations indicates that their sensing properties (sensitivity, limit of detection) are considerably improved when the gold layers are porous, in comparison to a conventional dense gold layer. The results obtained can be used to improve properties of SAW-based biosensors by controlling the nanostructure of the gold immobilization layer, in combination with other enzymes and proteins, since the design of the present sensor is the same as that for a Love Wave biosensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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12 pages, 4130 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis Model for SH-SAW Torque Sensors

by Chao Jiang, Yanqin Chen and Chongdu Cho

Sensors 2019, 19(19), 4290; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194290 - 03 Oct 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3343

Abstract

In this paper, a three-dimensional finite element analysis (3D-FEA) model for shear horizontal surface acoustic wave (SH-SAW) torque sensors is presented. Torque sensors play a significant role in various fields to ensure a reliable torque transmission in drivelines. Featured with the advantages of high propagation velocity, large Q-value, and good power capacity, SH-SAW based torque sensors are promising but very few studies have been carried out. In order to develop a successful sensor, understanding the characteristics of SH-SAWs produced on piezoelectric substrates and torque sensing modes is indispensable. Therefore, in this study, we first investigated the effect on the generation of waves when different Y-cut quartz substrates are engaged. Thereafter, analyses and comparisons, regarding the effect on the polarized displacement, wave guidance, and wave mode, were conducted for different configurations of wave-guide layer thickness to wavelength ratios (h_layer/λ) and materials. Results show that Y-cut quartz at an angle close to 36° with a gold (Au) layer varying from h_Au/λ = 0.02 to 0.03 thickness could be the most effective configuration for the excitation of SH-SAWs, compared to other combinations using platinum (Pt), titanium (Ti) and silicon dioxide (SiO₂). Finally, based on the FEA SH-SAW torque sensor model configuring with a Y + 36° quartz substrate and 0.025 λ-thick gold layer, the relationship between the applied torque and sensed voltage was examined, which shows a perfect linearity demonstrating the performance of the sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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15 pages, 2885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wireless Readout of Multiple SAW Temperature Sensors

by Gudrun Bruckner and Jochen Bardong

Sensors 2019, 19(14), 3077; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19143077 - 12 Jul 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4371

Abstract

It has since long been known that surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices, resonators as well as delay lines, can be used as passive wireless sensors for physical quantities, like temperature and pressure, as well as gas sensors or identification-tags (ID-tags). The sensors are robust, work passively without a battery, can be applied at high temperatures, and provide a high resolution. Nevertheless, if the devices are used wirelessly in an industrial environment, several constraints have to be taken into account, especially when more than one quantity or device needs to be measured at the same time. The paper addresses the challenges that must be tackled when establishing multi-sensor-wireless-readout for industrial applications. Major issues here are the legal regulations for industrial, scientific and medical frequency bands (ISM-bands), as well as sampling time and costs, which impose severe restrictions to any system design. We describe several design approaches and their constraints. We successfully designed sensors based on reflective delay lines that allow the parallel readout of four independent temperature sensors in the 2.45 GHz ISM-band. These devices were fabricated and positively tested, demonstrating the applicability of SAW sensors for industrial applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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13 pages, 5483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

SAW Torque Sensor Gyroscopic Effect Compensation by Least Squares Support Vector Machine Algorithm Based on Chaos Estimation of Distributed Algorithm

by Wei Han, Xiongzhu Bu, Yihan Cao and Miaomiao Xu

Sensors 2019, 19(12), 2768; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19122768 - 20 Jun 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3459

Abstract

As this study examined the issue of surface acoustic wave (SAW) torque sensor which interfered in high rotational speed, the gyroscopic effect generated by rotation was analyzed. Firstly, the SAW coupled equations which contained torque and rotation loads were deduced, and the torque calculation error caused by rotation was solved. Following this, the hardware of the SAW gyroscopic effect testing platform and the turntable experiment were designed to verify the correctness of the theoretical calculation. Finally, according to the experimental data, the gyroscopic effect was compensated by multivariate polynomial fitting (MPF), Gaussian processes regression (GPR), and least squares support vector machine algorithms (LSSVM). The comparison results showed that the LSSVM has the obvious advantage. For improving the function of LSSVM model, chaos estimation of distributed algorithm (CEDA) was proposed to optimize the super parameters of the LSSVM, and numerical simulation results showed that: (1) CEDA is superior to traditional estimation of distributed algorithms in convergence speed and anti-premature ability; (2) the performance of CEDA-LSSVM is better than genetic algorithms (GA)-LSSVM and particle swarm optimization (PSO)-LSSVM. After compensating by CEDA-LSSVM, the magnitude of the torque calculation relative error was 10⁻⁴ in any direction. This method has a significant effect on reducing gyroscopic interference, and it lays a foundation for the engineering application of SAW torque sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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17 pages, 3151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Simulation of a Wireless SAW–Pirani Sensor with Extended Range and Sensitivity

by Sofia Toto, Pascal Nicolay, Gian Luca Morini, Michael Rapp, Jan G. Korvink and Juergen J. Brandner

Sensors 2019, 19(10), 2421; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19102421 - 27 May 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5466 | Correction

Abstract

Pressure is a critical parameter for a large number of industrial processes. The vacuum industry relies on accurate pressure measurement and control. A new compact wireless vacuum sensor was designed and simulated and is presented in this publication. The sensor combines the Pirani principle and Surface Acoustic Waves, and it extends the vacuum sensed range to between 10⁻⁴ Pa and 10⁵ Pa all along a complete wireless operation. A thermal analysis was performed based on gas kinetic theory, aiming to optimize the thermal conductivity and the Knudsen regime of the device. Theoretical analysis and simulation allowed designing the structure of the sensor and its dimensions to ensure the highest sensitivity through the whole sensing range and to build a model that simulates the behavior of the sensor under vacuum. A completely new design and a model simulating the behavior of the sensor from high vacuum to atmospheric pressure were established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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13 pages, 5398 KiB

Open AccessLetter

Surface Acoustic Wave Resonators for Wireless Sensor Network Applications in the 433.92 MHz ISM Band

by Evangelos Moutoulas, Muhammad Hamidullah and Themis Prodromakis

Sensors 2020, 20(15), 4294; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20154294 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4067

Abstract

Surface acoustic wave (SAW) resonators are low cost devices that can operate wirelessly on a received radio frequency (RF) signal with no requirement for an additional power source. Multiple SAW resonators operating as transponders that form a wireless sensor network (WSN), often need to operate at tightly spaced, different frequencies inside the industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) bands. This requires nanometer precision in the design and fabrication processes. Here, we present results demonstrating a reliable and repeatable fabrication process that yields at least four arrays on a single 4-inch wafer. Each array consists of four single-port resonators with center frequencies allocated inside four different sub-bands that have less than 50 kHz bandwidth and quality factors exceeding 8000. We see promise of standard, low-cost photolithography techniques being used to fabricate multiple SAW resonators with different center resonances all inside the 433.05 MHz–434.79 MHz ISM band and a mere 100 kHz spacing. We achieved that by leveraging the intrinsic process variation of photolithography and the impact of the metallization ratio and metal thickness in rendering distinct resonant frequencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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17 pages, 4460 KiB

Open AccessLetter

Multi-Mode Love-Wave SAW Magnetic-Field Sensors

by Julius Schmalz, Anne Kittmann, Phillip Durdaut, Benjamin Spetzler, Franz Faupel, Michael Höft, Eckhard Quandt and Martina Gerken

Sensors 2020, 20(12), 3421; https://doi.org/10.3390/s20123421 - 17 Jun 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3777

Abstract

A surface-acoustic-wave (SAW) magnetic-field sensor utilizing fundamental, first- and second-order Love-wave modes is investigated. A

4.5 μ m

SiO₂ guiding layer on an ST-cut quartz substrate is coated with a 200

n

m

(Fe₉₀Co₁₀)₇₈Si₁₂ [...] Read more.

A surface-acoustic-wave (SAW) magnetic-field sensor utilizing fundamental, first- and second-order Love-wave modes is investigated. A

4.5 μ m

SiO₂ guiding layer on an ST-cut quartz substrate is coated with a 200

n

m

(Fe₉₀Co₁₀)₇₈Si₁₂B₁₀ magnetostrictive layer in a delay-line configuration. Love-waves are excited and detected by two interdigital transducers (IDT). The delta-E effect in the magnetostrictive layer causes a phase change with applied magnetic field. A sensitivity of 1250

^{°}

m

T

is measured for the fundamental Love mode at 263

M

Hz

. For the first-order Love mode a value of 45

^{°}

m

T

is obtained at 352

M

Hz

. This result is compared to finite-element-method (FEM) simulations using one-dimensional (1D) and two-and-a-half-dimensional (2.5 D) models. The FEM simulations confirm the large drop in sensitivity as the first-order mode is close to cut-off. For multi-mode operation, we identify as a suitable geometry a guiding layer to wavelength ratio of

h_{GL} / λ \approx 1.5

for an IDT pitch of

p = 12 μ m

. For this layer configuration, the first three modes are sufficiently far away from cut-off and show good sensitivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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5 pages, 193 KiB

Open AccessCorrection

Correction: Design and Simulation of a Wireless SAW–Pirani Sensor with Extended Range and Sensitivity

by Sofia Toto, Pascal Nicolay, Gian Luca Morini, Michael Rapp, Jan G. Korvink and Juergen J. Brandner

Sensors 2019, 19(14), 3243; https://doi.org/10.3390/s19143243 - 23 Jul 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3049

Abstract

The authors wish to make the following erratum to Reference [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors)

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