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Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022
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Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Communications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2022) | Viewed by 75486

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Peter Han Joo Chong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand
Interests: machine learning techniques applied to software defined vehicular networks; wireless/mobile communications systems including radio resource management, multiple access, MANETs/VANETs, green radio networks, and 5G-V2X networks
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce that the Communications Section is presently compiling a collection of papers submitted exclusively by Editorial Board Members (EBMs) of our section and outstanding scholars in this research field.

The purpose of this Special Issue is to publish a set of papers that typify the very best of insightful and influential original articles or reviews, where our section EBMs discuss key topics in the field. We expect these papers to be widely read and highly influential within the field. All papers in this Special Issue will be collected into a printed edition book following the deadline and be extensively promoted.

We wish to take this opportunity to call on more excellent scholars to join the Communications Section such that we can achieve more milestones together.

The topics of interest to this Special Issue include but are not limited to:

  • Wireless communications;
  • 5G/6G communication systems;
  • V2X communications
  • Sensor and ad hoc networks;
  • Intelligent communications and networking;
  • Ultrareliability and low latency communications;
  • Machine-to-machine communications;
  • Communication theory;
  • Communication protocol design;
  • Communication network security;
  • Data analytics and intelligent network operation;
  • Edge networks;
  • Electromagnetic/radio wave propagation;
  • Body area networks;
  • Millimeter-wave/terahertz communications;
  • RFID (radio frequency identification);
  • Vehicular communications;
  • Satellite communications;
  • UWB (ultra-wideband) communications;
  • Optical communications;
  • Software-defined radio and software-defined networking;
  • MIMO/NOMA communications;
  • Emerging communication technologies.

Prof. Dr. Peter Chong
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (23 papers)

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27 pages, 3954 KiB  
Article
Non-Intrusive Privacy-Preserving Approach for Presence Monitoring Based on WiFi Probe Requests
by Aleš Simončič, Miha Mohorčič, Mihael Mohorčič and Andrej Hrovat
Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2588; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052588 - 26 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1985
Abstract
Monitoring the presence and movements of individuals or crowds in a given area can provide valuable insight into actual behavior patterns and hidden trends. Therefore, it is crucial in areas such as public safety, transportation, urban planning, disaster and crisis management, and mass [...] Read more.
Monitoring the presence and movements of individuals or crowds in a given area can provide valuable insight into actual behavior patterns and hidden trends. Therefore, it is crucial in areas such as public safety, transportation, urban planning, disaster and crisis management, and mass events organization, both for the adoption of appropriate policies and measures and for the development of advanced services and applications. In this paper, we propose a non-intrusive privacy-preserving detection of people’s presence and movement patterns by tracking their carried WiFi-enabled personal devices, using the network management messages transmitted by these devices for their association with the available networks. However, due to privacy regulations, various randomization schemes have been implemented in network management messages to prevent easy discrimination between devices based on their addresses, sequence numbers of messages, data fields, and the amount of data contained in the messages. To this end, we proposed a novel de-randomization method that detects individual devices by grouping similar network management messages and corresponding radio channel characteristics using a novel clustering and matching procedure. The proposed method was first calibrated using a labeled publicly available dataset, which was validated by measurements in a controlled rural and a semi-controlled indoor environment, and finally tested in terms of scalability and accuracy in an uncontrolled crowded urban environment. The results show that the proposed de-randomization method is able to correctly detect more than 96% of the devices from the rural and indoor datasets when validated separately for each device. When the devices are grouped, the accuracy of the method decreases but is still above 70% for rural environments and 80% for indoor environments. The final verification of the non-intrusive, low-cost solution for analyzing the presence and movement patterns of people, which also provides information on clustered data that can be used to analyze the movements of individuals, in an urban environment confirmed the accuracy, scalability and robustness of the method. However, it also revealed some drawbacks in terms of exponential computational complexity and determination and fine-tuning of method parameters, which require further optimization and automation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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17 pages, 1805 KiB  
Article
An Adaptive Traffic-Flow Management System with a Cooperative Transitional Maneuver for Vehicular Platoons
by Lopamudra Hota, Biraja Prasad Nayak, Bibhudatta Sahoo, Peter H. J. Chong and Arun Kumar
Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2481; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052481 - 23 Feb 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1836
Abstract
Globally, the increases in vehicle numbers, traffic congestion, and road accidents are serious issues. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) traveling in platoons provide innovative solutions for efficient traffic flow management, especially for congestion mitigation, thus reducing accidents. In recent years, platoon-based driving, also known as [...] Read more.
Globally, the increases in vehicle numbers, traffic congestion, and road accidents are serious issues. Autonomous vehicles (AVs) traveling in platoons provide innovative solutions for efficient traffic flow management, especially for congestion mitigation, thus reducing accidents. In recent years, platoon-based driving, also known as vehicle platoon, has emerged as an extensive research area. Vehicle platooning reduces travel time and increases road capacity by reducing the safety distance between vehicles. For connected and automated vehicles, cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) systems and platoon management systems play a significant role. Platoon vehicles can maintain a closer safety distance due to CACC systems, which are based on vehicle status data obtained through vehicular communications. This paper proposes an adaptive traffic flow and collision avoidance approach for vehicular platoons based on CACC. The proposed approach considers the creation and evolution of platoons to govern the traffic flow during congestion and avoid collisions in uncertain situations. Different obstructing scenarios are identified during travel, and solutions to these challenging situations are proposed. The merge and join maneuvers are performed to help the platoon’s steady movement. The simulation results show a significant improvement in traffic flow due to the mitigation of congestion using platooning, minimizing travel time, and avoiding collisions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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12 pages, 5413 KiB  
Article
Enhancing Circular Polarization Performance of Low-Profile Patch Antennas for Wearables Using Characteristic Mode Analysis
by Zhensheng Chen, Xuezhi Zheng, Chaoyun Song, Jiahao Zhang, Vladimir Volskiy, Yifan Li and Guy A. E. Vandenbosch
Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2474; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052474 - 23 Feb 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2478
Abstract
A wearable antenna functioning in the 2.4 GHz band for health monitoring and sensing is proposed. It is a circularly polarized (CP) patch antenna made from textiles. Despite its low profile (3.34 mm thickness, 0.027 λ0), an enhanced 3-dB axial ratio [...] Read more.
A wearable antenna functioning in the 2.4 GHz band for health monitoring and sensing is proposed. It is a circularly polarized (CP) patch antenna made from textiles. Despite its low profile (3.34 mm thickness, 0.027 λ0), an enhanced 3-dB axial ratio (AR) bandwidth is achieved by introducing slit-loaded parasitic elements on top of analysis and observations within the framework of Characteristic Mode Analysis (CMA). In detail, the parasitic elements introduce higher-order modes at high frequencies that may contribute to the 3-dB AR bandwidth enhancement. More importantly, additional slit loading is investigated to preserve the higher-order modes while relaxing strong capacitive coupling invoked by the low-profile structure and the parasitic elements. As a result, unlike conventional multilayer designs, a simple single-substrate, low-profile, and low-cost structure is achieved. While compared to traditional low-profile antennas, a significantly widened CP bandwidth is realized. These merits are important for the future massive application. The realized CP bandwidth is 2.2–2.54 GHz (14.3%), which is 3–5 times that of traditional low-profile designs (thickness < 4 mm, 0.04 λ0). A prototype was fabricated and measured with good results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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13 pages, 1427 KiB  
Article
Non-Data-Aided SNR Estimation for Bandlimited Optical Intensity Channels
by Wilfried Gappmair
Sensors 2023, 23(2), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020802 - 10 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 898
Abstract
Powerful and reliable estimation of transmission parameters is an indispensable task in each receiver unit—not only for radio frequency, but also for optical wireless communication systems. In this context, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) plays an eminent role, especially for adaptive scenarios. Assuming a [...] Read more.
Powerful and reliable estimation of transmission parameters is an indispensable task in each receiver unit—not only for radio frequency, but also for optical wireless communication systems. In this context, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) plays an eminent role, especially for adaptive scenarios. Assuming a bandlimited optical intensity channel, which requires a unipolar waveform design, an algorithm for SNR estimation is developed in this paper, which requires no knowledge of the transmitted data. This non-data-aided approach benefits to a great extent from the fact that very long observation windows of payload symbols might be used for the estimation process to increase the accuracy of the result; this is in striking contrast to a data-aided approach based on pilot symbols reducing the spectral efficiency of a communication link. Since maximum likelihood, moment-based or decision-directed algorithms are not considered for complexity and performance reasons, an expectation-maximization solution is introduced whose error performance is close to the Cramer-Rao lower bound as the theoretical limit, which has been derived as well. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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29 pages, 7047 KiB  
Article
Secure Vehicular Platoon Management against Sybil Attacks
by Danial Ritzuan Junaidi, Maode Ma and Rong Su
Sensors 2022, 22(22), 9000; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22229000 - 21 Nov 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1672
Abstract
The capacity of highways has been an ever-present constraint in the 21st century, bringing about the issue of safety with greater likelihoods of traffic accidents occurring. Furthermore, recent global oil prices have inflated to record levels. A potential solution lies in vehicular platooning, [...] Read more.
The capacity of highways has been an ever-present constraint in the 21st century, bringing about the issue of safety with greater likelihoods of traffic accidents occurring. Furthermore, recent global oil prices have inflated to record levels. A potential solution lies in vehicular platooning, which has been garnering attention, but its deployment is uncommon due to cyber security concerns. One particular concern is a Sybil attack, by which the admission of fake virtual vehicles into the platoon allows malicious actors to wreak havoc on the platoon itself. In this paper, we propose a secure management scheme for platoons that can protect major events that occur in the platoon operations against Sybil attacks. Both vehicle identity and message exchanged are authenticated by adopting key exchange, digital signature and encryption schemes based on elliptic curve cryptography (ECC). Noteworthy features of the scheme include providing perfect forward secrecy and both group forward and backward secrecy to preserve the privacy of vehicles and platoons. Typical malicious attacks such as replay and man-in-the-middle attacks for example can also be resisted. A formal evaluation of the security functionality of the scheme by the Canetti–Krawczyk (CK) adversary and the random oracle model as well as a brief computational verification by CryptoVerif were conducted. Finally, the performance of the proposed scheme was evaluated to show its time and space efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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11 pages, 1106 KiB  
Article
Data-Aided SNR Estimation for Bandlimited Optical Intensity Channels
by Wilfried Gappmair
Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8660; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228660 - 09 Nov 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 966
Abstract
Not only for radio frequency but also for optical communication systems, knowledge of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is essential, e.g., for an adaptive network, where modulation schemes and/or error correction methods should be selected according to the varying channel states. In the current [...] Read more.
Not only for radio frequency but also for optical communication systems, knowledge of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is essential, e.g., for an adaptive network, where modulation schemes and/or error correction methods should be selected according to the varying channel states. In the current paper, this topic is discussed for a bandlimited optical intensity link under the assumption that the data symbols are known to the receiver unit in form of pilot sequences. This requires a unipolar signal design regarding the symbol constellation, but also a non-negative pulse shape satisfying the Nyquist criterion is necessary. Focusing on this kind of scenario, the modified Cramer–Rao lower bound is derived, representing the theoretical limit of the error performance of the data-aided SNR estimator developed in this context. Furthermore, we derive and analyze a maximum likelihood algorithm for SNR estimation, which turns out to be particularly simple for specific values of the excess bandwidth, among them the most attractive case of minimum bandwidth occupation. Numerical results confirming the analytical work conclude the paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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14 pages, 593 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Routing Optimization for 6G Communication Networks Using a Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm
by Helen Urgelles, Pablo Picazo-Martinez, David Garcia-Roger and Jose F. Monserrat
Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7570; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197570 - 06 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2213
Abstract
Sixth-generation wireless (6G) technology has been focused on in the wireless research community. Global coverage, massive spectrum usage, complex new applications, and strong security are among the new paradigms introduced by 6G. However, realizing such features may require computation capabilities transcending those of [...] Read more.
Sixth-generation wireless (6G) technology has been focused on in the wireless research community. Global coverage, massive spectrum usage, complex new applications, and strong security are among the new paradigms introduced by 6G. However, realizing such features may require computation capabilities transcending those of present (classical) computers. Large technology companies are already exploring quantum computers, which could be adopted as potential technological enablers for 6G. This is a promising avenue to explore because quantum computers exploit the properties of quantum states to perform certain computations significantly faster than classical computers. This paper focuses on routing optimization in wireless mesh networks using quantum computers, explicitly applying the quantum approximate optimization algorithm (QAOA). Single-objective and multi-objective examples are presented as robust candidates for the application of quantum machine learning. Moreover, a discussion about quantum supremacy estimation for this problem is provided. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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19 pages, 2003 KiB  
Article
A Fair Channel Hopping Scheme for LoRa Networks with Multiple Single-Channel Gateways
by Alexandre Figueiredo, Miguel Luís and André Zúquete
Sensors 2022, 22(14), 5260; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22145260 - 14 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1770
Abstract
LoRa is one of the most prominent LPWAN technologies due to its suitable characteristics for supporting large-scale IoT networks, as it offers long-range communications at low power consumption. The latter is granted mainly because end-nodes transmit directly to the gateways and no energy [...] Read more.
LoRa is one of the most prominent LPWAN technologies due to its suitable characteristics for supporting large-scale IoT networks, as it offers long-range communications at low power consumption. The latter is granted mainly because end-nodes transmit directly to the gateways and no energy is spent in multi-hop transmissions. LoRaWAN gateways can successfully receive simultaneous transmissions on multiple channels. However, such gateways can be costly when compared to simpler single-channel LoRa transceivers, and at the same time they are configured to operate with pure-ALOHA, the well-known and fragile channel access scheme used in LoRaWAN. This work presents a fair, control-based channel hopping-based medium access scheme for LoRa networks with multiple single-channel gateways. Compared with the pure-ALOHA used in LoRaWAN, the protocol proposed here achieves higher goodput and fairness levels because each device can choose its most appropriate channel to transmit at a higher rate and spending less energy. Several simulation results considering different network densities and different numbers of single-channel LoRa gateways show that our proposal is able to achieve a packet delivery ratio (PDR) of around 18% for a network size of 2000 end-nodes and one gateway, and a PDR of almost 50% when four LoRa gateways are considered, compared to 2% and 6%, respectively, achieved by the pure-ALOHA approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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17 pages, 1538 KiB  
Article
Energy-Aware Dynamic DU Selection and NF Relocation in O-RAN Using Actor–Critic Learning
by Shahram Mollahasani, Turgay Pamuklu, Rodney Wilson and Melike Erol-Kantarci
Sensors 2022, 22(13), 5029; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22135029 - 03 Jul 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1767
Abstract
Open radio access network (O-RAN) is one of the promising candidates for fulfilling flexible and cost-effective goals by considering openness and intelligence in its architecture. In the O-RAN architecture, a central unit (O-CU) and a distributed unit (O-DU) are virtualized and executed on [...] Read more.
Open radio access network (O-RAN) is one of the promising candidates for fulfilling flexible and cost-effective goals by considering openness and intelligence in its architecture. In the O-RAN architecture, a central unit (O-CU) and a distributed unit (O-DU) are virtualized and executed on processing pools of general-purpose processors that can be placed at different locations. Therefore, it is challenging to choose a proper location for executing network functions (NFs) over these entities by considering propagation delay and computational capacity. In this paper, we propose a Soft Actor–Critic Energy-Aware Dynamic DU Selection algorithm (SA2C-EADDUS) by integrating two nested actor–critic agents in the O-RAN architecture. In addition, we formulate an optimization model that minimizes delay and energy consumption. Then, we solve that problem with an MILP solver and use that solution as a lower bound comparison for our SA2C-EADDUS algorithm. Moreover, we compare that algorithm with recent works, including RL- and DRL-based resource allocation algorithms and a heuristic method. We show that by collaborating A2C agents in different layers and by dynamic relocation of NFs, based on service requirements, our schemes improve the energy efficiency by 50% with respect to other schemes. Moreover, we reduce the mean delay by a significant amount with our novel SA2C-EADDUS approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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16 pages, 4937 KiB  
Article
Electronic Beam-Scanning Antenna Based on a Reconfigurable Phase-Modulated Metasurface
by Zakaria Zouhdi, Badreddine Ratni and Shah Nawaz Burokur
Sensors 2022, 22(13), 4990; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22134990 - 01 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2462
Abstract
Metasurfaces (MSs) have enabled the emergence of new ideas and solutions in the design of antennas and for the control of electromagnetic waves. In this work, we propose to design a directional high-gain reconfigurable planar antenna based on a phase-modulated metasurface. Reconfigurability is [...] Read more.
Metasurfaces (MSs) have enabled the emergence of new ideas and solutions in the design of antennas and for the control of electromagnetic waves. In this work, we propose to design a directional high-gain reconfigurable planar antenna based on a phase-modulated metasurface. Reconfigurability is achieved by integrating varactor diodes into the elementary meta-atoms composing the metasurface. As a proof of concept, a metasurface prototype that operates around 5 GHz is designed and fabricated to be tested in an antenna configuration. The metasurface is flexibly controlled by different bias voltages applied to the varactor diodes, thus allowing the user to control its phase characteristics. By assigning judiciously calculated phase profiles to the metasurface illuminated by a feeding primary source, different scenarios of far-field patterns can be considered. Different phase profiles are tested, allowing us to, firstly, achieve a highly directive boresight radiation and, secondly, to steer the main radiated beam towards an off-normal direction. The whole design process is verified by numerical simulations and is validated experimentally by far-field antenna measurements. The proposed metasurface enables the design of directive flat antennas with beam-scanning characteristics without complex feeding systems and power-consuming phase shifters, and thus provides potential interests for next generation antenna hardware. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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17 pages, 2742 KiB  
Article
Geodesic Path Model for Indoor Propagation Loss Prediction of Narrowband Channels
by Abdil Kaya , Brecht De Beelde, Wout Joseph, Maarten Weyn and Rafael Berkvens
Sensors 2022, 22(13), 4903; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22134903 - 29 Jun 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1841
Abstract
Indoor path loss models characterize the attenuation of signals between a transmitting and receiving antenna for a certain frequency and type of environment. Their use ranges from network coverage planning to joint communication and sensing applications such as localization and crowd counting. The [...] Read more.
Indoor path loss models characterize the attenuation of signals between a transmitting and receiving antenna for a certain frequency and type of environment. Their use ranges from network coverage planning to joint communication and sensing applications such as localization and crowd counting. The need for this proposed geodesic path model comes forth from attempts at path loss-based localization on ships, for which the traditional models do not yield satisfactory path loss predictions. In this work, we present a novel pathfinding-based path loss model, requiring only a simple binary floor map and transmitter locations as input. The approximated propagation path is determined using geodesics, which are constrained shortest distances within path-connected spaces. However, finding geodesic paths from one distinct path-connected space to another is done through a systematic process of choosing space connector points and concatenating parts of the geodesic path. We developed an accompanying tool and present its algorithm which automatically extracts model parameters such as the number of wall crossings on the direct path as well as on the geodesic path, path distance, and direction changes on the corners along the propagation path. Moreover, we validate our model against path loss measurements conducted in two distinct indoor environments using DASH-7 sensor networks operating at 868 MHz. The results are then compared to traditional floor-map-based models. Mean absolute errors as low as 4.79 dB and a standard deviation of the model error of 3.63 dB is achieved in a ship environment, almost half the values of the next best traditional model. Improvements in an office environment are more modest with a mean absolute error of 6.16 dB and a standard deviation of 4.55 dB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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26 pages, 3286 KiB  
Article
A Secure Blockchain-Based Authentication and Key Agreement Scheme for 3GPP 5G Networks
by Man Chun Chow and Maode Ma
Sensors 2022, 22(12), 4525; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22124525 - 15 Jun 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2714
Abstract
The futuristic fifth-generation cellular network (5G) not only supports high-speed internet, but must also connect a multitude of devices simultaneously without compromising network security. To ensure the security of the network, the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has standardized the 5G Authentication and [...] Read more.
The futuristic fifth-generation cellular network (5G) not only supports high-speed internet, but must also connect a multitude of devices simultaneously without compromising network security. To ensure the security of the network, the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has standardized the 5G Authentication and Key Agreement (AKA) protocol for mutually authenticating user equipment (UE), base stations, and the core network. However, it has been found that 5G-AKA is vulnerable to many attacks, including linkability attacks, denial-of-service (DoS) attacks, and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks. To address these security issues and improve the robustness of the 5G network, in this paper, we introduce the Secure Blockchain-based Authentication and Key Agreement for 5G Networks (5GSBA). Using blockchain as a distributed database, our 5GSBA decentralizes authentication functions from a centralized server to all base stations. It can prevent single-point-of-failure and increase the difficulty of DDoS attacks. Moreover, to ensure the data in the blockchain cannot be used for device impersonation, our scheme employs the one-time secret hash function as the device secret key. Furthermore, our 5GSBA can protect device anonymity by mandating the encryption of device identities with Subscription Concealed Identifiers (SUCI). Linkability attacks are also prevented by deprecating the sequence number with Elliptic Curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH). We use Burrows–Abadi–Needham (BAN) logic and the Scyther tool to formally verify our protocol. The security analysis shows that 5GSBA is superior to 5G-AKA in terms of perfect forward secrecy, device anonymity, and mutual Authentication and Key Agreement (AKA). Additionally, it effectively deters linkability attacks, replay attacks, and most importantly, DoS and DDoS attacks. Finally, the performance evaluation shows that 5GSBA is efficient for both UEs and base stations with reasonably low computational costs and energy consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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26 pages, 7523 KiB  
Article
An Optimization Model for Appraising Intrusion-Detection Systems for Network Security Communications: Applications, Challenges, and Solutions
by Mohamed Abdel-Basset, Abduallah Gamal, Karam M. Sallam, Ibrahim Elgendi, Kumudu Munasinghe and Abbas Jamalipour
Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4123; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114123 - 29 May 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2489
Abstract
Cyber-attacks are getting increasingly complex, and as a result, the functional concerns of intrusion-detection systems (IDSs) are becoming increasingly difficult to resolve. The credibility of security services, such as privacy preservation, authenticity, and accessibility, may be jeopardized if breaches are not detected. Different [...] Read more.
Cyber-attacks are getting increasingly complex, and as a result, the functional concerns of intrusion-detection systems (IDSs) are becoming increasingly difficult to resolve. The credibility of security services, such as privacy preservation, authenticity, and accessibility, may be jeopardized if breaches are not detected. Different organizations currently utilize a variety of tactics, strategies, and technology to protect the systems’ credibility in order to combat these dangers. Safeguarding approaches include establishing rules and procedures, developing user awareness, deploying firewall and verification systems, regulating system access, and forming computer-issue management groups. The effectiveness of intrusion-detection systems is not sufficiently recognized. IDS is used in businesses to examine possibly harmful tendencies occurring in technological environments. Determining an effective IDS is a complex task for organizations that require consideration of many key criteria and their sub-aspects. To deal with these multiple and interrelated criteria and their sub-aspects, a multi-criteria decision-making (MCMD) approach was applied. These criteria and their sub-aspects can also include some ambiguity and uncertainty, and thus they were treated using q-rung orthopair fuzzy sets (q-ROFS) and q-rung orthopair fuzzy numbers (q-ROFNs). Additionally, the problem of combining expert and specialist opinions was dealt with using the q-rung orthopair fuzzy weighted geometric (q-ROFWG). Initially, the entropy method was applied to assess the priorities of the key criteria and their sub-aspects. Then, the combined compromised solution (CoCoSo) method was applied to evaluate six IDSs according to their effectiveness and reliability. Afterward, comparative and sensitivity analyses were performed to confirm the stability, reliability, and performance of the proposed approach. The findings indicate that most of the IDSs appear to be systems with high potential. According to the results, Suricata is the best IDS that relies on multi-threading performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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20 pages, 1757 KiB  
Article
A Perspective on Passive Human Sensing with Bluetooth
by Giancarlo Iannizzotto, Miryam Milici, Andrea Nucita and Lucia Lo Bello
Sensors 2022, 22(9), 3523; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093523 - 05 May 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3623
Abstract
Passive human sensing approaches based on the analysis of the radio signals emitted by the most common wireless communication technologies have been steadily gaining momentum during the last decade. In this context, the Bluetooth technology, despite its widespread adoption in mobile and IoT [...] Read more.
Passive human sensing approaches based on the analysis of the radio signals emitted by the most common wireless communication technologies have been steadily gaining momentum during the last decade. In this context, the Bluetooth technology, despite its widespread adoption in mobile and IoT applications, so far has not received all the attention it deserves. However, the introduction of the Bluetooth direction finding feature and the application of Artificial Intelligence techniques to the processing and analysis of the wireless signal for passive human sensing pave the way for novel Bluetooth-based passive human sensing applications, which will leverage Bluetooth Low Energy features, such as low power consumption, noise resilience, wide diffusion, and relatively low deployment cost. This paper provides a reasoned analysis of the data preprocessing and classification techniques proposed in the literature on Bluetooth-based remote passive human sensing, which is supported by a comparison of the reported accuracy results. Building on such results, the paper also identifies and discusses the multiple factors and operating conditions that explain the different accuracy values achieved by the considered techniques, and it draws the main research directions for the near future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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16 pages, 2222 KiB  
Article
Multilink Operation in IEEE 802.11be Wireless LANs: Backoff Overflow Problem and Solutions
by Wisnu Murti and Ji-Hoon Yun
Sensors 2022, 22(9), 3501; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093501 - 04 May 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2092
Abstract
The next-generation wireless LAN standard named IEEE 802.11be supports a multilink operation to cost-efficiently boost throughput performance, for which an efficient multilink channel scheme is essential. The synchronous channel access scheme with an enhancement allowing multilink transmission before backoff completion greatly enhances the [...] Read more.
The next-generation wireless LAN standard named IEEE 802.11be supports a multilink operation to cost-efficiently boost throughput performance, for which an efficient multilink channel scheme is essential. The synchronous channel access scheme with an enhancement allowing multilink transmission before backoff completion greatly enhances the performance of multilink devices with no simultaneous transmit and receive capability, for which, however, backoff count compensation is necessary for coexistence with legacy and other multilink devices. In this paper, we identify the backoff count overflow problem of the enhanced synchronous channel access scheme with backoff compensation, which becomes aggravated once triggered due to repeated compensations. Then, we propose four solutions to mitigate this problem: limiting consecutive free-riding transmissions, limiting a compensated backoff value, using the contention window value of a main link, and balancing transmissions between links. Through comparative evaluation and analyses for dense single-spot and indoor random deployment scenarios, we demonstrate in terms of throughput and latency that the proposed solutions successfully mitigate the problem while preserving the coexistence performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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15 pages, 522 KiB  
Article
Popularity-Aware Closeness Based Caching in NDN Edge Networks
by Marica Amadeo, Claudia Campolo, Giuseppe Ruggeri and Antonella Molinaro
Sensors 2022, 22(9), 3460; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093460 - 02 May 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1904
Abstract
By enabling name-based routing and ubiquitous in-network caching, Named Data Networking (NDN) is a promising network architecture for sixth generation (6G) edge network infrastructures. However, the performance of content retrieval largely depends on the selected caching strategy, which is implemented in a distributed [...] Read more.
By enabling name-based routing and ubiquitous in-network caching, Named Data Networking (NDN) is a promising network architecture for sixth generation (6G) edge network infrastructures. However, the performance of content retrieval largely depends on the selected caching strategy, which is implemented in a distributed fashion by each NDN node. Previous research showed the effectiveness of caching decisions based on content popularity and network topology information. This paper presents a new distributed caching strategy for NDN edge networks based on a metric called popularity-aware closeness (PaC), which measures the proximity of the potential cacher to the majority of requesters of a certain content. After identifying the most popular contents, the strategy caches them in the available edge nodes that guarantee the higher PaC. Achieved simulation results show that the proposed strategy outperforms other benchmark schemes, in terms of reduced content retrieval delay and exchanged data traffic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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20 pages, 823 KiB  
Article
New Results for the Error Rate Performance of LoRa Systems over Fading Channels
by Kostas Peppas, Spyridon K. Chronopoulos, Dimitrios Loukatos and Konstantinos Arvanitis
Sensors 2022, 22(9), 3350; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093350 - 27 Apr 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2087
Abstract
Long Range (LoRa) systems have recently attracted significant attention within the research community as well as for commercial use due to their ability to transmit data over long distances at a relatively low energy cost. In this study, new results for the bit [...] Read more.
Long Range (LoRa) systems have recently attracted significant attention within the research community as well as for commercial use due to their ability to transmit data over long distances at a relatively low energy cost. In this study, new results for the bit error rate performance of Long Range (LoRa) systems operating in the presence of Rayleigh, Rice, Nakagami-m, Hoyt, η-μ and generalized fading channels are presented. Specifically, we propose novel exact single integral expressions as well as simple, accurate expressions that yield tight results in the entire signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) region. The validity of our newly derived formulas is substantiated by comparing numerically evaluated results with equivalent ones, obtained using Monte-Carlo simulations and exact analytical expressions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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17 pages, 943 KiB  
Article
Towards Double Defense Network Security Based on Multi-Identifier Network Architecture
by Yunmin Wang, Abla Smahi, Huayu Zhang and Hui Li
Sensors 2022, 22(3), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22030747 - 19 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2509
Abstract
Recently, more and more mobile devices have been connected to the Internet. The Internet environment is complicated, and network security incidents emerge endlessly. Traditional blocking and killing passive defense measures cannot fundamentally meet the network security requirements. Inspired by the heuristic establishment of [...] Read more.
Recently, more and more mobile devices have been connected to the Internet. The Internet environment is complicated, and network security incidents emerge endlessly. Traditional blocking and killing passive defense measures cannot fundamentally meet the network security requirements. Inspired by the heuristic establishment of multiple lines of defense in immunology, we designed and prototyped a Double Defense strategy with Endogenous Safety and Security (DDESS) based on multi-identifier network (MIN) architecture. DDESS adopts the idea of a zero-trust network, with identity authentication as the core for access control, which solves security problems of traditional IP networks. In addition, DDESS achieves individual static security defense through encryption and decryption, consortium blockchain, trusted computing whitelist, and remote attestation strategies. At the same time, with the dynamic collection of data traffic and access logs, as well as the understanding and prediction of the situation, DDESS can realize the situation awareness of network security and the cultivation of immune vaccines against unknown network attacks, thus achieving the active herd defense of network security. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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Review

Jump to: Research

86 pages, 1791 KiB  
Review
Deep Learning in Diverse Intelligent Sensor Based Systems
by Yanming Zhu, Min Wang, Xuefei Yin, Jue Zhang, Erik Meijering and Jiankun Hu
Sensors 2023, 23(1), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010062 - 21 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 7910
Abstract
Deep learning has become a predominant method for solving data analysis problems in virtually all fields of science and engineering. The increasing complexity and the large volume of data collected by diverse sensor systems have spurred the development of deep learning methods and [...] Read more.
Deep learning has become a predominant method for solving data analysis problems in virtually all fields of science and engineering. The increasing complexity and the large volume of data collected by diverse sensor systems have spurred the development of deep learning methods and have fundamentally transformed the way the data are acquired, processed, analyzed, and interpreted. With the rapid development of deep learning technology and its ever-increasing range of successful applications across diverse sensor systems, there is an urgent need to provide a comprehensive investigation of deep learning in this domain from a holistic view. This survey paper aims to contribute to this by systematically investigating deep learning models/methods and their applications across diverse sensor systems. It also provides a comprehensive summary of deep learning implementation tips and links to tutorials, open-source codes, and pretrained models, which can serve as an excellent self-contained reference for deep learning practitioners and those seeking to innovate deep learning in this space. In addition, this paper provides insights into research topics in diverse sensor systems where deep learning has not yet been well-developed, and highlights challenges and future opportunities. This survey serves as a catalyst to accelerate the application and transformation of deep learning in diverse sensor systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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33 pages, 889 KiB  
Review
A Survey of 3D Indoor Localization Systems and Technologies
by Andrey Sesyuk, Stelios Ioannou and Marios Raspopoulos
Sensors 2022, 22(23), 9380; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22239380 - 01 Dec 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4147
Abstract
Indoor localization has recently and significantly attracted the interest of the research community mainly due to the fact that Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) typically fail in indoor environments. In the last couple of decades, there have been several works reported in the [...] Read more.
Indoor localization has recently and significantly attracted the interest of the research community mainly due to the fact that Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) typically fail in indoor environments. In the last couple of decades, there have been several works reported in the literature that attempt to tackle the indoor localization problem. However, most of this work is focused solely on two-dimensional (2D) localization, while very few papers consider three dimensions (3D). There is also a noticeable lack of survey papers focusing on 3D indoor localization; hence, in this paper, we aim to carry out a survey and provide a detailed critical review of the current state of the art concerning 3D indoor localization including geometric approaches such as angle of arrival (AoA), time of arrival (ToA), time difference of arrival (TDoA), fingerprinting approaches based on Received Signal Strength (RSS), Channel State Information (CSI), Magnetic Field (MF) and Fine Time Measurement (FTM), as well as fusion-based and hybrid-positioning techniques. We provide a variety of technologies, with a focus on wireless technologies that may be utilized for 3D indoor localization such as WiFi, Bluetooth, UWB, mmWave, visible light and sound-based technologies. We critically analyze the advantages and disadvantages of each approach/technology in 3D localization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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30 pages, 5081 KiB  
Review
A Comprehensive Review on Time Sensitive Networks with a Special Focus on Its Applicability to Industrial Smart and Distributed Measurement Systems
by Tommaso Fedullo, Alberto Morato, Federico Tramarin, Luigi Rovati and Stefano Vitturi
Sensors 2022, 22(4), 1638; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041638 - 19 Feb 2022
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4118
Abstract
The groundbreaking transformations triggered by the Industry 4.0 paradigm have dramatically reshaped the requirements for control and communication systems within the factory systems of the future. The aforementioned technological revolution strongly affects industrial smart and distributed measurement systems as well, pointing to ever [...] Read more.
The groundbreaking transformations triggered by the Industry 4.0 paradigm have dramatically reshaped the requirements for control and communication systems within the factory systems of the future. The aforementioned technological revolution strongly affects industrial smart and distributed measurement systems as well, pointing to ever more integrated and intelligent equipment devoted to derive accurate measurements. Moreover, as factory automation uses ever wider and complex smart distributed measurement systems, the well-known Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm finds its viability also in the industrial context, namely Industrial IoT (IIoT). In this context, communication networks and protocols play a key role, directly impacting on the measurement accuracy, causality, reliability and safety. The requirements coming both from Industry 4.0 and the IIoT, such as the coexistence of time-sensitive and best effort traffic, the need for enhanced horizontal and vertical integration, and interoperability between Information Technology (IT) and Operational Technology (OT), fostered the development of enhanced communication subsystems. Indeed, established technologies, such as Ethernet and Wi-Fi, widespread in the consumer and office fields, are intrinsically non-deterministic and unable to support critical traffic. In the last years, the IEEE 802.1 Working Group defined an extensive set of standards, comprehensively known as Time Sensitive Networking (TSN), aiming at reshaping the Ethernet standard to support for time-, mission- and safety-critical traffic. In this paper, a comprehensive overview of the TSN Working Group standardization activity is provided, while contextualizing TSN within the complex existing industrial technological panorama, particularly focusing on industrial distributed measurement systems. In particular, this paper has to be considered a technical review of the most important features of TSN, while underlining its applicability to the measurement field. Furthermore, the adoption of TSN within the Wi-Fi technology is addressed in the last part of the survey, since wireless communication represents an appealing opportunity in the industrial measurement context. In this respect, a test case is presented, to point out the need for wirelessly connected sensors networks. In particular, by reviewing some literature contributions it has been possible to show how wireless technologies offer the flexibility necessary to support advanced mobile IIoT applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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27 pages, 3227 KiB  
Review
Drone Detection and Defense Systems: Survey and a Software-Defined Radio-Based Solution
by Florin-Lucian Chiper, Alexandru Martian, Calin Vladeanu, Ion Marghescu, Razvan Craciunescu and Octavian Fratu
Sensors 2022, 22(4), 1453; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041453 - 14 Feb 2022
Cited by 44 | Viewed by 14935
Abstract
With the decrease in the cost and size of drones in recent years, their number has also increased exponentially. As such, the concerns regarding security aspects that are raised by their presence are also becoming more serious. The necessity of designing and implementing [...] Read more.
With the decrease in the cost and size of drones in recent years, their number has also increased exponentially. As such, the concerns regarding security aspects that are raised by their presence are also becoming more serious. The necessity of designing and implementing systems that are able to detect and provide defense actions against such threats has become apparent. In this paper, we perform a survey regarding the different drone detection and defense systems that were proposed in the literature, based on different types of methods (i.e., radio frequency (RF), acoustical, optical, radar, etc.), with an emphasis on RF-based systems implemented using software-defined radio (SDR) platforms. We have followed the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines in order to provide a concise and thorough presentation of the current status of the subject. In the final part, we also describe our own solution that was designed and implemented in the framework of the DronEnd research project. The DronEnd system is based on RF methods and uses SDR platforms as the main hardware elements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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32 pages, 1148 KiB  
Review
A Survey of Blind Modulation Classification Techniques for OFDM Signals
by Anand Kumar, Sudhan Majhi, Guan Gui, Hsiao-Chun Wu and Chau Yuen
Sensors 2022, 22(3), 1020; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22031020 - 28 Jan 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4652
Abstract
Blind modulation classification (MC) is an integral part of designing an adaptive or intelligent transceiver for future wireless communications. Blind MC has several applications in the adaptive and automated systems of sixth generation (6G) communications to improve spectral efficiency and power efficiency, and [...] Read more.
Blind modulation classification (MC) is an integral part of designing an adaptive or intelligent transceiver for future wireless communications. Blind MC has several applications in the adaptive and automated systems of sixth generation (6G) communications to improve spectral efficiency and power efficiency, and reduce latency. It will become a integral part of intelligent software-defined radios (SDR) for future communication. In this paper, we provide various MC techniques for orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) signals in a systematic way. We focus on the most widely used statistical and machine learning (ML) models and emphasize their advantages and limitations. The statistical-based blind MC includes likelihood-based (LB), maximum a posteriori (MAP) and feature-based methods (FB). The ML-based automated MC includes k-nearest neighbors (KNN), support vector machine (SVM), decision trees (DTs), convolutional neural networks (CNNs), recurrent neural networks (RNNs), and long short-term memory (LSTM) based MC methods. This survey will help the reader to understand the main characteristics of each technique, their advantages and disadvantages. We have also simulated some primary methods, i.e., statistical- and ML-based algorithms, under various constraints, which allows a fair comparison among different methodologies. The overall system performance in terms bit error rate (BER) in the presence of MC is also provided. We also provide a survey of some practical experiment works carried out through National Instrument hardware over an indoor propagation environment. In the end, open problems and possible directions for blind MC research are briefly discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Communications Section 2022)
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