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Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Wearables".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2024 | Viewed by 13878

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Prof. Dr. Felipe García-Pinillos

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Department of Sports and Physical Education, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
Interests: physiology; training; biomechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Alejandro Pérez-Castilla

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Department of Education, Faculty of Education Sciences, University of Almería, Almería, Spain
Interests: physiology; training; biomechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Diego Jaén-Carrillo

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Department of Sport Science, Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Interests: physiology; training; biomechanics
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Sport biomechanics and training have been traditionally tested under laboratory conditions, requiring both specific conditions and expensive equipment. The novel use of wearable devices aids to fulfill the lack of ecology for such measures and provides an affordable and easy-to-use option to perform biomechanics. Lately, wearable sensors have allowed the quantification of performance and workload by providing mechanical and physiological parameters and their popularity has grown exponentially. In this context, more and more wearable sensors are commercially available and, when applied to biomechanics, these devices are able to provide both kinetic and kinematic variables improving consequently the feasibility and testing time of such assessments and, therefore, becoming a real alternative for sport practitioners and researchers. Additionally, wearable devices allow real-time monitoring and biofeedback.

This Special Issue encourages authors to submit their research and contributions about the use and application of wearable sensors for sport biomechanics and Training Science.

The main topics for this issue include, but are not limited to:

- Validity analysis of novel wearable devices for sport biomechanics and training Science.

- Reliability analysis of wearable devices.

- New applications and uses of metrics provided by wearable devices in training, competition and injury management settings.

- Novel technologies applied to sport biomechanics and training science.

- State of the art of wearable devices in relation to the topic of this Special Issue.

-Algorithms, integrations with other platforms or software, signal processing, and big data obtained by wearable devices.

Prof. Dr. Felipe García-Pinillos
Dr. Alejandro Pérez-Castilla
Dr. Diego Jaén-Carrillo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 2818 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Metabolic Power and Energy Cost of Submaximal and Sprint Running Efforts Using Different Methods in Elite Youth Soccer Players: A Novel Energetic Approach

by Gabriele Grassadonia, Pedro E. Alcaraz and Tomás T. Freitas

Sensors 2024, 24(8), 2577; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24082577 - 17 Apr 2024

Viewed by 409

Abstract

Sprinting is a decisive action in soccer that is considerably taxing from a neuromuscular and energetic perspective. This study compared different calculation methods for the metabolic power (MP) and energy cost (EC) of sprinting using global positioning system (GPS) metrics and electromyography (EMG), with the aim of identifying potential differences in performance markers. Sixteen elite U17 male soccer players (age: 16.4 ± 0.5 years; body mass: 64.6 ± 4.4 kg; and height: 177.4 ± 4.3 cm) participated in the study and completed four different submaximal constant running efforts followed by sprinting actions while using portable GPS-IMU units and surface EMG. GPS-derived MP was determined based on GPS velocity, and the EMG-MP and EC were calculated based on individual profiles plotting the MP of the GPS and all EMG signals acquired. The goodness of fit of the linear regressions was assessed by the coefficient of determination (R²), and a repeated measures ANOVA was used to detect changes. A linear trend was found in EMG activity during submaximal speed runs (R² = 1), but when the sprint effort was considered, the trend became exponential (R² = 0.89). The EMG/force ratio displayed two different trends: linear up to a 30 m sprint (R² = 0.99) and polynomial up to a 50 m sprint (R² = 0.96). Statistically significant differences between the GPS and EMG were observed for MP splits at 0–5 m, 5–10 m, 25–30 m, 30–35 m, and 35–40 m and for EC splits at 5–10 m, 25–30 m, 30–35 m, and 35–40 m (p ≤ 0.05). Therefore, the determination of the MP and EC based on GPS technology underestimated the neuromuscular and metabolic engagement during the sprinting efforts. Thus, the EMG-derived method seems to be more accurate for calculating the MP and EC in this type of action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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12 pages, 2406 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Torque–Cadence Profile and Maximal Dynamic Force in Cyclists: A Novel Approach

by Víctor Rodríguez-Rielves, David Barranco-Gil, Ángel Buendía-Romero, Alejandro Hernández-Belmonte, Enrique Higueras-Liébana, Jon Iriberri, Iván R. Sánchez-Redondo, José Ramón Lillo-Beviá, Alejandro Martínez-Cava, Raúl de Pablos, Pedro L. Valenzuela, Jesús G. Pallarés and Lidia B. Alejo

Sensors 2024, 24(6), 1997; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24061997 - 21 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1405

Abstract

We aimed to determine the feasibility, test–retest reliability and long-term stability of a novel method for assessing the force (torque)-velocity (cadence) profile and maximal dynamic force (MDF) during leg-pedaling using a friction-loaded isoinertial cycle ergometer and a high-precision power-meter device. Fifty-two trained male cyclists completed a progressive loading test up to the one-repetition maximum (1RM) on a cycle ergometer. The MDF was defined as the force attained at the cycle performed with the 1RM-load. To examine the test–retest reliability and long-term stability of torque–cadence values, the progressive test was repeated after 72 h and also after 10 weeks of aerobic and strength training. The participants’ MDF averaged 13.4 ± 1.3 N·kg⁻¹, which was attained with an average pedal cadence of 21 ± 3 rpm. Participants’ highest power output value was attained with a cadence of 110 ± 16 rpm (52 ± 5% MDF). The relationship between the MDF and cadence proved to be very strong (R² = 0.978) and independent of the cyclists’ MDF (p = 0.66). Cadence values derived from this relationship revealed a very high test–retest repeatability (mean SEM = 4 rpm, 3.3%) and long-term stability (SEM = 3 rpm, 2.3%); despite increases in the MDF following the 10-week period. Our findings support the validity, reliability and long-term stability of this method for the assessment of the torque–cadence profile and MDF in cyclists. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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17 pages, 2311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Proficiency Barrier in Track and Field: Adaptation and Generalization Processes

by M. Teresa S. Ribeiro, Filipe Conceição and Matheus M. Pacheco

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 1000; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24031000 - 04 Feb 2024

Viewed by 641

Abstract

The literature on motor development and training assumes a hierarchy for learning skills—learning the “fundamentals”—that has yet to be empirically demonstrated. The present study addressed this issue by verifying (1) whether this strong hierarchy (i.e., the proficiency barrier) holds between three fundamental skills and three sport skills and (2) considering different transfer processes (generalization/adaptation) that would occur as a result of the existence of this strong hierarchy. Twenty-seven children/adolescents participated in performing the countermovement jump, standing long jump, leap, high jump, long jump, and hurdle transposition. We identified the proficiency barrier in two pairs of tasks (between the countermovement jump and high jump and between the standing long jump and long jump). Nonetheless, the transfer processes were not related to the proficiency barrier. We conclude that the proposed learning hierarchy holds for some tasks. The underlying reason for this is still unknown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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17 pages, 1331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability of Xsens IMU-Based Lower Extremity Joint Angles during In-Field Running

by Daniel Debertin, Anna Wargel and Maurice Mohr

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 871; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030871 - 29 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1345

Abstract

The Xsens Link motion capture suit has become a popular tool in investigating 3D running kinematics based on wearable inertial measurement units outside of the laboratory. In this study, we investigated the reliability of Xsens-based lower extremity joint angles during unconstrained running on stable (asphalt) and unstable (woodchip) surfaces within and between five different testing days in a group of 17 recreational runners (8 female, 9 male). Specifically, we determined the within-day and between-day intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and minimal detectable changes (MDCs) with respect to discrete ankle, knee, and hip joint angles. When comparing runs within the same day, the investigated Xsens-based joint angles generally showed good to excellent reliability (median ICCs > 0.9). Between-day reliability was generally lower than the within-day estimates: Initial hip, knee, and ankle angles in the sagittal plane showed good reliability (median ICCs > 0.88), while ankle and hip angles in the frontal plane showed only poor to moderate reliability (median ICCs 0.38–0.83). The results were largely unaffected by the surface. In conclusion, within-day adaptations in lower-extremity running kinematics can be captured with the Xsens Link system. Our data on between-day reliability suggest caution when trying to capture longitudinal adaptations, specifically for ankle and hip joint angles in the frontal plane. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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15 pages, 2210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of High-Load Bench Press Training with Different Blood Flow Restriction Pressurization Strategies on the Degree of Muscle Activation in the Upper Limbs of Bodybuilders

by Kexin He, Yao Sun, Shuang Xiao, Xiuli Zhang, Zhihao Du and Yanping Zhang

Sensors 2024, 24(2), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020605 - 17 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1399

Abstract

Background: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different pressurization modes during high-load bench press training on muscle activation and subjective fatigue in bodybuilders. Methods: Ten bodybuilders participated in a randomized, self-controlled crossover experimental design, performing bench press training under three different pressurization modes: T1 (low pressure, high resistance), T2 (high pressure, high resistance), and C (non-pressurized conventional). Surface EMG signals were recorded from the pectoralis major, deltoid, and triceps muscles using a Delsys Trigno wireless surface EMG during bench presses. Subjective fatigue was assessed immediately after the training session. Results: (1) Pectoralis major muscle: The muscle activation degree of the T1 group was significantly higher than that of the blank control group during the bench press (p < 0.05). The muscle activation degree of the T2 group was significantly higher than that of the C group during the bench press (p < 0.05). In addition, the muscle activation degree of the T2 group was significantly higher than that of the T1 group during the first group bench press (p < 0.05). (2) Deltoid muscle: The muscle activation degree of the T2 group during the third group bench press was significantly lower than the index values of the first two groups (p < 0.05). The muscle activation degree in the experimental group was significantly higher than that in the C group (p < 0.05). The degree of muscle activation in the T2 group was significantly higher than that in the T1 group during the first bench press (p < 0.05). (3) Triceps: The muscle activation degree of the T1 group was significantly higher than the index value of the third group during the second group bench press (p < 0.05), while the muscle activation degree of the T2 group was significantly lower than the index value of the first two groups during the third group bench press (p < 0.05). The degree of muscle activation in all experimental groups was significantly higher than that in group C (p < 0.05). (5) RPE index values in all groups were significantly increased (p < 0.05). The RPE value of the T1 group was significantly higher than that of the C group after bench press (p < 0.05). The RPE value of the T1 group was significantly higher than that of the C group after bench press (p < 0.05). In the third group, the RPE value of the T1 group was significantly higher than that of the C and T2 groups (p = 0.002) (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The activation of the pectoralis major, triceps brachii, and deltoid muscles is significantly increased by high-intensity bench press training with either continuous or intermittent pressurization. However, continuous pressurization results in a higher level of perceived fatigue. The training mode involving high pressure and high resistance without pressurization during sets but with 180 mmHg occlusion pressure and pressurization during rest intervals yields the most pronounced overall effect on muscle activation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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17 pages, 5653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving Balance and Movement Control in Fencing Using IoT and Real-Time Sensorial Feedback

by Valentin-Adrian Niță and Petra Magyar

Sensors 2023, 23(24), 9801; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23249801 - 13 Dec 2023

Viewed by 816

Abstract

Fencing, a sport emphasizing the equilibrium and movement control of participants, forms the focal point of inquiry in the current study. The research endeavors to assess the efficacy of a novel system designed for real-time monitoring of fencers’ balance and movement control, augmented by modules incorporating visual feedback and haptic feedback, to ascertain its potential for performance enhancement. Over a span of five weeks, three distinct groups, each comprising ten fencers, underwent specific training: a control group, a cohort utilizing the system with a visual real-time feedback module, and a cohort using the system with a haptic real-time feedback module. Positive outcomes were observed across all three groups, a typical occurrence following a 5-week training regimen. However, noteworthy advancements were particularly discerned in the second group, reaching approximately 15%. In contrast, the improvements in the remaining two groups were below 5%. Statistical analyses employing the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for repeated measures were applied to assess the significance of the results. Significance was solely ascertained for the second group, underscoring the efficacy of the system integrated with visual real-time feedback in yielding statistically noteworthy performance enhancements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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12 pages, 1151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Myotendinous Thermoregulation in National Level Sprinters after a Unilateral Fatigue Acute Bout—A Descriptive Study

by Alessio Cabizosu, Cristian Marín-Pagán, Antonio Martínez-Serrano, Pedro E. Alcaraz and Francisco Javier Martínez-Noguera

Sensors 2023, 23(23), 9330; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23239330 - 22 Nov 2023

Viewed by 584

Abstract

In the last decade there has been a growing interest in infrared thermography in the field of sports medicine in order to elucidate the mechanisms of thermoregulation. The aim of this study was to describe bilateral variations in skin temperature of the anterior thigh and patellar tendon in healthy athletes and to provide a model of baseline tendon and muscle thermoregulation in healthy sprinters following a unilateral isokinetic fatigue protocol. Fifteen healthy national-level sprinters (eleven men and four women), with at least 3 years of athletic training experience of 10–12 h/week and competing in national-level competitions, underwent unilateral isokinetic force testing and electrostimulation in which their body temperature was measured before, during, and after the protocol using an infrared thermographic camera. ANOVA detected a significant difference in the time × side interaction for patellar temperature changes (p ≤ 0.001) and a significant difference in the time/side interaction for quadriceps temperature changes (p ≤ 0.001). The thermal challenge produces homogeneous changes evident in quadriceps areas, but not homogeneous in tendon areas. These data show that metabolic and blood flow changes may depend on the physical and mechanical properties of each tissue. Future research could be conducted to evaluate the predictive value of neuromuscular fatigue in the patellar tendon and quadriceps after exercise in order to optimize post-exercise recovery strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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13 pages, 588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of the Specific Strength Test in Handball Performance: Exploring Differences across Competitive Levels and Age Groups

by Luis J. Chirosa-Ríos, Ignacio J. Chirosa-Ríos, Isidoro Martínez-Marín, Yolanda Román-Montoya and José Fernando Vera-Vera

Sensors 2023, 23(11), 5178; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23115178 - 29 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1795

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine if specific physical tests are sufficiently discriminant to differentiate players of similar anthropometric characteristics, but of different playing levels. Physical tests were conducted analyzing specific strength, throwing velocity, and running speed tests. Thirty-six male junior handball players (n = 36; age 19.7 ± 1.8 years; 185.6 ± 6.9 cm; 83.1 ± 10.3 kg; 10.6 ± 3.2 years of experience) from two different levels of competition participated in the study: NT = 18 were world top-level elite players, belonging to the Spanish junior men’s national team (National Team = NT) and A = 18 players of the same age and anthropometric conditions, who were selected from Spanish third league men’s teams (Amateur = A). The results showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between the two groups in all physical tests, except for two-step-test velocity and shoulder internal rotation. We conclude that a battery combining the Specific Performance Test and the Force Development Standing Test is useful in identifying talent and differentiating between elite and sub-elite players. The current findings suggest that running speed tests and throwing tests are essential in selecting players, regardless of age, sex, or type of competition. The results shed light on the factors that differentiate players of different levels and can help coaches in selecting players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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10 pages, 972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Level of Agreement between the MotionMetrix System and an Optoelectronic Motion Capture System for Walking and Running Gait Measurements

by Diego Jaén-Carrillo, Felipe García-Pinillos, José M. Chicano-Gutiérrez, Alejandro Pérez-Castilla, Víctor Soto-Hermoso, Alejandro Molina-Molina and Santiago A. Ruiz-Alias

Sensors 2023, 23(10), 4576; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23104576 - 09 May 2023

Viewed by 1597

Abstract

Markerless motion capture systems (MCS) have been developed as an alternative solution to overcome the limitations of 3D MCS as they provide a more practical and efficient setup process given, among other factors, the lack of sensors attached to the body. However, this might affect the accuracy of the measures recorded. Thus, this study is aimed at evaluating the level of agreement between a markerless MSC (i.e., MotionMetrix) and an optoelectronic MCS (i.e., Qualisys). For such purpose, 24 healthy young adults were assessed for walking (at 5 km/h) and running (at 10 and 15 km/h) in a single session. The parameters obtained from MotionMetrix and Qualisys were tested in terms of level of agreement. When walking at 5 km/h, the MotionMetrix system significantly underestimated the stance and swing phases, as well as the load and pre-swing phases (p < 0.05) reporting also relatively low systematic bias (i.e., ≤ −0.03 s) and standard error of the estimate (SEE) (i.e., ≤0.02 s). The level of agreement between measurements was perfect (r > 0.9) for step length left and cadence and very large (r > 0.7) for step time left, gait cycle, and stride length. Regarding running at 10 km/h, bias and SEE analysis revealed significant differences for most of the variables except for stride time, rate and length, swing knee flexion for both legs, and thigh flexion left. The level of agreement between measurements was very large (r > 0.7) for stride time and rate, stride length, and vertical displacement. At 15 km/h, bias and SEE revealed significant differences for vertical displacement, landing knee flexion for both legs, stance knee flexion left, thigh flexion, and extension for both legs. The level of agreement between measurements in running at 15 km/h was almost perfect (r > 0.9) when comparing Qualisys and MotionMetrix parameters for stride time and rate, and stride length. The agreement between the two motion capture systems varied for different variables and speeds of locomotion, with some variables demonstrating high agreement while others showed poor agreement. Nonetheless, the findings presented here suggest that the MotionMetrix system is a promising option for sports practitioners and clinicians interested in measuring gait variables, particularly in the contexts examined in the study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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8 pages, 941 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RunScribe Sacral Gait Lab™ Validation for Measuring Pelvic Kinematics during Human Locomotion at Different Speeds

by Emilio J. Ruiz-Malagón, Felipe García-Pinillos, Alejandro Molina-Molina, Víctor M. Soto-Hermoso and Santiago A. Ruiz-Alias

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2604; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052604 - 27 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1437

Abstract

Optoelectronic motion capture systems are considered the gold standard for measuring walking and running kinematics parameters. However, these systems prerequisites are not feasible for practitioners as they entail a laboratory environment and time to process and calculate the data. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the validity of the three-sensor RunScribe Sacral Gait Lab™ inertial measurement unit (IMU) in measuring pelvic kinematics in terms of vertical oscillation, tilt, obliquity, rotational range of motion, and the maximum angular rates during walking and running on a treadmill. Pelvic kinematic parameters were measured simultaneously using an eight-camera motion analysis system (Qualisys Medical AB, GÖTEBORG, Sweden) and the three-sensor RunScribe Sacral Gait Lab™ (Scribe Lab. Inc. San Francisco, CA, USA) in a sample of 16 healthy young adults. An acceptable level of agreement was considered if the following criteria were met: low bias and SEE (<0.2 times the between-subject differences SD), almost perfect (r > 0.90), and good reliability (ICC > 0.81). The results obtained reveal that the three-sensor RunScribe Sacral Gait Lab™ IMU did not reach the validity criteria established for any of the variables and velocities tested. The results obtained therefore show significant differences between the systems for the pelvic kinematic parameters measured during both walking and running. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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16 pages, 1223 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Test–Retest and Between–Device Reliability of Vmaxpro IMU at Hip and Ankle for Vertical Jump Measurement

by Lamberto Villalon-Gasch, Jose M. Jimenez-Olmedo, Javier Olaya-Cuartero and Basilio Pueo

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 2068; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042068 - 12 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1669

Abstract

The ability to generate force in the lower body can be considered a performance factor in sports. This study aims to analyze the test–retest and between-device reliability related to the location on the body of the inertial measurement unit Vmaxpro for the estimation of vertical jump. Eleven highly trained female athletes performed 220 countermovement jumps (CMJ). Data were simultaneously captured by two Vmaxpro units located between L4 and L5 vertebrae (hip method) and on top of the tibial malleolus (ankle method). Intrasession reliability was higher for ankle (ICC = 0.96; CCC = 0.93; SEM = 1.0 cm; CV = 4.64%) than hip (ICC = 0.91; CCC = 0.92; SEM = 3.4 cm; CV = 5.13%). In addition, sensitivity was higher for ankle (SWC = 0.28) than for the hip method (SWC = 0.40). The noise of the measurement (SEM) was higher than the worthwhile change (SWC), indicating lack of ability to detect meaningful changes. The agreement between methods was moderate (r_s = 0.84; ICC = 0.77; CCC = 0.25; SEM = 1.47 cm). Significant differences were detected between methods (−8.5 cm, p < 0.05, ES = 2.2). In conclusion, the location of the device affects the measurement by underestimating CMJ on ankle. Despite the acceptable consistency of the instrument, the results of the reliability analysis reveal a significant magnitude of both random and systematic error. As such, the Vmaxpro should not be considered a reliable instrument for measuring CMJ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wearable and Portable Devices in Sport Biomechanics and Training Science)

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