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Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Circular and Green Sustainable Polymer Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 April 2022) | Viewed by 32030

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Prof. Dr. María del Carmen Serna Moreno

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Instituto de Investigación Aplicada a la Industria Aeronáutica, Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial y Aeroespacial de Toledo, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Campus Fábrica de Armas, Av. Carlos III, 45004 Toledo, Spain
Interests: strength of materials; continuum mechanics; biaxial testing; pseudo-ductility
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Dr. Sergio Horta Muñoz

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Escuela de Ingeniería Industrial y Aeroespacial de Toledo, Instituto de Investigación Aplicada a la Industria Aeronáutica (INAIA), Departamento de Mecánica Aplicada e Ingeniería de Proyectos, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Av. Carlos III, Campus Fábrica de Armas, 45004 Toledo, Spain
Interests: fiber-reinforced composites; mechanical characterization; multiaxial loading; numerical modelling; damage mechanics
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Dr. Pablo Antonio Morales-Rodríguez

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Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos de Ciudad Real (ETSIA), Departamento de Producción Vegetal y Tecnología Agraria, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ronda de Calatrava 7, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
Interests: structural analysis; composites; finite element method; mechanical testing; UAV; remote sensing; hydraulic engineering

Dr. David Ruiz Gracia

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Departamento de Matemáticas, EIIA, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 45071 Toledo, Spain
Interests: topology optimization; piezoelectric material; finite element method; hyperelasticity

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue on the mechanical response of fibre-reinforced polymer-based materials will contain original research and review papers on key topics, including:

- Industrial applications: aerospace, ground-based transportation, marine, renewable energies, civil engineering, sports and leisure, medical, agricultural applications.

- Materials: fibre-reinforced polymers, prepregs.

- Structural behaviour: uniaxial testing, bending, impact, multiaxial testing, non-standard experimental methods, anisotropy, fracture and damage, multiscale modelling, short and long fibre composites, buckling and stability, pseudo-ductile composites, application of numerical techniques.

This Special Issue focuses on experimental, numerical and analytical studies about fibre-reinforced polymer-based materials with structural applications, with a special emphasis on the physics that underlies the mechanical behaviour. In addition to the topics already listed, the issue may also interlock the subjects of strength of materials and continuum mechanics for practical applications, including constitutive equations, optimization techniques, the finite element method (FEM) or the application of novel experimental methodologies. Both original contributions and reviews are welcome.

Prof. Dr. María del Carmen Serna Moreno
Dr. Sergio Horta Muñoz
Dr. Pablo Antonio Morales-Rodríguez
Dr. David Ruiz Gracia
Guest Editors

Keywords

Mechanical response
Industrial applications
Structural behaviour
Polymers
Composites
Experimental testing
Fracture
Damage
Buckling
Pseudo-ductility
FEM

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 69380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Application of 3D-Woven Fabrics for Packaging Materials for Terminally Sterilized Medical Devices

by Stana Kovačević, Beti Rogina-Car and Ana Kiš

Polymers 2022, 14(22), 4952; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14224952 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2621

Abstract

This research aimed to test a newly developed 3D fabric for use in a hospital sterilization unit as a packaging material. Two basic properties were tested: the efficiency of the microbial barrier, and the bursting strength of the woven fabric, determined with a steel ball. Material deformations caused by bursting are common in medical sterilization, as a consequence of the packaging of the medical tools needed in surgery. Six 3D-fabric samples were woven from the same warp, with three weft densities and in two different weaves. The weaving conditions and other construction characteristics of the fabrics were the same. To determine the effectiveness of the microbial barrier, bacterial endospores of an apathogenic species of the genus Bacillus, Geobacillus stearothermophilus and Bacillus atrophaeus, were used. Mechanical testing of the 3D-woven fabric, i.e., the bursting strength of the fabric using a steel ball, was carried out according to the standard method. The results showed the exceptional puncture strength of the woven fabrics and their formation of an effective microbial barrier, i.e., complete impermeability to microorganisms in five samples, which is the main condition for possible use as a packaging material in medical sterilization. Sample 3tp did not provide an effective microbial barrier and did not meet the basic requirements for use in medical sterilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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21 pages, 6974 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Design of a Novel Composite Anchorage for Carbon-Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Tendons

by Yamin Sun, Kuihua Mei, Shengjiang Sun, Tao Wang and Xiang Ren

Polymers 2022, 14(10), 2048; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14102048 - 17 May 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2134

Abstract

In this study, we proposed a novel composite anchorage that considers the anchoring performance and dimension simultaneously. The design concept of this composite anchorage was first introduced, followed by comparison with the traditional inner-cone bond-type anchorage and traditional composite anchorage through theoretical and experimental methods. Then, a parametric study was conducted to determine the influence of different parameters on the anchoring performance, and the optimal design parameters were recommended according to the finite element (FE) and test results. Finally, the practicability of the optimal design parameters were validated through experiments on the anchorage with multiple CFRP tendons. Results showed that the novel composite anchorage could improve the anchoring performance compared with the traditional inner-cone bond-type anchorage by promoting increased anchorage efficiency by 60.4% and, with an ideal failure mode of tendon rupture. Moreover, the novel composite anchorage had smaller dimensions and avoided the presence of a vulnerable position at the junction of the mechanical and bond parts compared with the traditional composite anchorage. In addition, a group of optimal design parameters of this composite anchorage with a pre-tightening force of 130 kN, an inclinational differential angle of 0.1°, an inclination angle of 2.9°, and an embedded length of 30 d~40 d were proposed. The composite anchorage with five CFRP tendons designed with the proposed parameters failed with the rupture of the tendons and exhibited an anchoring efficiency of 1.05. This result showed that the optimal parameters were suitable for this novel composite anchorage to grip multiple tendons. This study can provide an experimental and theoretical basis for designing large-tonnage anchorage for multiple FRP tendons used as hangers or cables in real bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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22 pages, 8801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Investigation of a Lattice Structure for Energy Absorption: Application to the Design of an Automotive Crash Absorber

by Carlo Boursier Niutta, Raffaele Ciardiello and Andrea Tridello

Polymers 2022, 14(6), 1116; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14061116 - 10 Mar 2022

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 4742

Abstract

In this work, an experimental and numerical analysis of a lattice structure for energy absorption was carried out. The goal was to identify the most influencing parameters of the unit cell on the crushing performances of the structure, thus guiding the design of energy absorbers. Two full factorial plans of compression tests on cubic specimens of carbon nylon produced by fused deposition modeling (FDM) were performed. The factors were the beam diameter and the number of unit cells. In the first factorial plan, the specimen volume is constant and the dimensions of the unit cell are varied, while the second factorial plan assumes a constant size of the unit cell and the volume changes in accordance with their number. The results showed that the specific energy absorption increases with the diameter of the beam and decreases with the size of the unit cell. Based on these results, a crash absorber for the segment C vehicle was designed and compared with the standard component of the vehicle made of steel. In addition to a mass reduction of 25%, the improved crushing performances of the lattice structure are shown by the very smooth force-displacement curve with limited peaks and valleys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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18 pages, 9252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Design of Triaxial Tests with Polymer Matrix Composites

by María del Carmen Serna Moreno, Sergio Horta Muñoz and Alberto Ruiz Gracia

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 837; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040837 - 21 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2505

Abstract

Multiaxial testing in composites may generate failure modes which are more representative of what occurs in a real structure submitted to complex loading conditions. However, some of its main handicaps include the need for special facilities, the correct design of the experiments, and the challenging interpretation of the results. The framework of this research is based on a triaxial testing machine with six actuators which is able to apply simultaneous and synchronized axial loads in the three space directions. Then, the aim was to design from a numerical point of view a triaxial experiment adapted to this equipment. The methodology proposed could allow for an adequate characterization of the triaxial response of a polymer-based composite with apparent isotropic behaviour in the testing directions. The finite element method (FEM) is applied in order to define the geometry of the triaxial specimen. The design pursues to achieve homogeneous stress and strain states in the triaxially loaded region, which should be accessible for direct measurement of the strains. Moreover, a fixing system is proposed for experimentally reproducing the desired boundary conditions imposed on the numerical simulations. The procedure to determine the full strain tensor in the triaxially loaded region is described analytically and with the help of FEM virtual testing. The hydrostatic component and the deviatoric part of the strain tensor are proposed for estimating the susceptibility of the polymer-based composite to fail due to the triaxial strain state imposed. Then, the loading scenarios that cause higher values of the deviatoric components in the triaxially loaded region are considered to be more prone to damage the region of interest. Nevertheless, the experimental failure is expected to be produced in the arms of the specimen which are uniaxially loaded, since in all of the loading cases the simulations show higher levels of stress concentration out of the triaxially loaded region. Thus, although the triaxial strength could not be accurately determined by the proposed tests, they can be utilized for observing the triaxial response before failure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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20 pages, 11175 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis and Characterization of Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Polymer by Adding Ceramic Nanoparticles for Aeronautical Structural Applications

by Omar Talal Bafakeeh, Walid Mahmoud Shewakh, Ahmed Abu-Oqail, Walaa Abd-Elaziem, Metwally Abdel Ghafaar and Mohamed Abu-Okail

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4116; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234116 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4265

Abstract

The multiscale hybridization of ceramic nanoparticles incorporated into polymer matrices reinforced with hybrid fibers offers a new opportunity to develop high-performance, multifunctional composites, especially for applications in aeronautical structures. In this study, two different kinds of hybrid fibers were selected, woven carbon and glass fiber, while two different ceramic nanoparticles, alumina (Al₂O₃) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), were chosen to incorporate into a polymer matrix (epoxy resin). To obtain good dispersion of additive nanoparticles within the resin matrix, the ultrasonication technique was implemented. The microstructure, XRD patterns, hardness, and tensile properties of the fabricated composites were investigated here. Microstructural characterization demonstrated a good dispersion of ceramic nanoparticles of Al₂O₃ and GNPs in the fabricated composites. The addition of GNPs/Al₂O₃ nanoparticles as additive reinforcements to the fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) induced a significant increase in the hardness and tensile strength. Generally, the FRPs with 3 wt.% nano-Al₂O₃ enhanced composites exhibit higher tensile strength as compared with all other sets of composites. Particularly, the tensile strength was improved from 133 MPa in the unreinforced specimen to 230 MPa in the reinforced specimen with 3 wt.% Al₂O₃. This can be attributed to the better distribution of nanoparticles in the resin polymer, which, in turn, induces proper stress transfer from the matrix to the fiber phase. The hybrid mode mechanism depends on the interaction among the mechanical properties of fiber, the physical and chemical evolution of resin, the bonding properties of the fiber/resin interface, and the service environment. Therefore, the hybrid mode of woven carbon and glass fibers at a volume fraction of 64% with additive nanoparticles of GNPs/Al₂O₃ within the resin was appropriate to produce aeronautical structures with extraordinary properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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15 pages, 4294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Alkali Concentration and Diluent Effects on Properties of Grape Cane Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites

by Balkis F. A. Bakar and Frederick A. Kamke

Polymers 2021, 13(23), 4055; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13234055 - 23 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2211

Abstract

The main objective of this study was to investigate the properties of polymer composites reinforced with grape cane fibers. The fibers were subjected to a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) treatment at two treatment concentrations to extract the fibers as well as fiber surface treatment. Panels were fabricated by hand lay-up and compression molding according to different fiber types, namely outer bark (OB) and whole (W) fibers. The whole fiber was a mixture of OB and inner bark (IB) fibers. Grape cane fibers were used as the reinforcement material for unsaturated polyester (UPE) resin panels. Acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO) was used as a reactive diluent material with the UPE resin, and the results were compared with panels prepared with commercial styrene–UPE. There were inconsistent alkali treatment concentration effects on the mechanical properties and water absorption. However, panels fabricated with the whole bark fibers that have been treated with 1 wt % NaOH and had AESO–UPE resin resulted in the best tensile and flexural strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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18 pages, 13823 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Design and Testing of a Thermoplastic Pressurized Passenger Door Manufactured Using Thermoforming

by Roman Růžek, Josef Krena, Radek Doubrava, Josef Tkadlec, Martin Kadlec and Petr Bělský

Polymers 2021, 13(19), 3394; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13193394 - 2 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2457

Abstract

The present paper documents and discusses research work associated with a newly designed passenger door structure demonstrator. The composite structure was manufactured from carbon-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic resin. A composite frame with a variable cross-section was designed, optimized, and fabricated using thermoforming technology. Both numerical simulations and experiments supported structural verification according to the damage tolerance philosophy; i.e., impact damage is presented. The Tsai-Wu and maximal stress criteria were used for damage analysis of the composite parts. Topological optimization of the metal hinges from the point of view of weight reduction was used. All expected parameters and proposed requirements of the mechanical properties were proved and completed. The door panel showed an expected numerically evaluated residual strength (ultimate structure load) as well as meeting airworthiness requirements. No impact damage propagation in the composite parts was observed during mechanical tests, even though visible impact damage was introduced into the structure. No significant difference between the numerical simulations and the experimentally measured total deformation was observed. Repeated deformation measurements during fatigue showed a nonlinear structure behavior. This can be attributed to the relaxation of thermoplastics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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15 pages, 5068 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimisation of Through-Thickness Embedding Location of Fibre Bragg Grating Sensor in CFRP for Impact Damage Detection

by Helena Rocha, Ugo Lafont and João P. Nunes

Polymers 2021, 13(18), 3078; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13183078 - 12 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2142

Abstract

Aerospace composites are susceptible to barely visible impact damage (BVID) produced by low-velocity-impact (LVI) events. Fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensors can detect BVID, but often FBG sensors are embedded in the mid-plan, where residual strains produced by impact damage are lower, leading to an undervaluation of the damage severity. This study compares the residual strains produced by LVI events measured by FBG embedded at the mid-plan and other through-thickness locations of carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. The instrumented laminates were subjected to multiple low-velocity impacts while the FBG signals were acquired. The FBG sensor measurements allowed not only for the residual strain after damage to be measured, but also for a strain peak at the time of impact to be detected, which is an important feature to identify the nature and presence of BVID in real-life applications. The results allowed an adequate optical fibre (OF) embedding location to be selected for BVID detection. The effect of small- and large-diameter OF on the impact resistance of the CFRP was compared. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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22 pages, 4277 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effect of Short Fibres in the Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer Mortar Containing Oil-Contaminated Sand

by Rajab Abousnina, Haifa Ibrahim Alsalmi, Allan Manalo, Rochstad Lim Allister, Omar Alajarmeh, Wahid Ferdous and Khouloud Jlassi

Polymers 2021, 13(17), 3008; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13173008 - 5 Sep 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3795

Abstract

Sand contaminated with crude oil is becoming a major environmental issue around the world, while at the same time, fly ash generated by coal-fired power stations is having a detrimental effect on the environment. Previous studies showed that combining these two waste materials can result in an environmentally sustainable geopolymer concrete. Incorporating sand contaminated with crude oil up to a certain level (4% by weight) can improve the mechanical properties of the produced geopolymer concrete but beyond this level can have a detrimental effect on its compressive strength. To overcome this challenge, this study introduces short fibres to enhance the mechanical properties of geopolymer mortar containing fine sand contaminated with 6% by weight of light crude oil. Four types of short fibres, consisting of twisted polypropylene (PP) fibres, straight PP fibres, short glass fibres and steel fibres in different dosages (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5% by volume of geopolymer mortar) are considered. The optimum strength was obtained when straight PP fibres were used wherein increases of up to 39% and 74% of the compressive and tensile strength, respectively, of the geopolymer mortar were achieved. Moreover, a fibre dosage of 0.5% provided the highest enhancement in the mechanical properties of the geopolymer mortar with 6% crude oil contamination. This result indicates that the reduction in strength of geopolymer due to the addition of sand with 6% crude oil contamination can be regained by using short fibres, making this new material from wastes suitable for building and construction applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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Review

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20 pages, 3735 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Cruciform Biaxial Testing of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers

by Sergio Horta Muñoz and María del Carmen Serna Moreno

Polymers 2022, 14(4), 686; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040686 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3166

Abstract

The heterogeneity and anisotropy of fibre-reinforced polymer matrix composites results in a highly complex mechanical response and failure under multiaxial loading states. Among the different biaxial testing techniques, tests with cruciform specimens have been a preferred option, although nowadays, they continue to raise a lack of consensus. It is therefore necessary to review the state of the art of this testing methodology applied to fibre-reinforced polymers. In this context, aspects such as the specific constituents, the geometric design of the specimen or the application of different tensile/compressive load ratios must be analysed in detail before being able to establish a suitable testing procedure. In addition, the most significant results obtained in terms of the analytical, numerical and experimental analyses of the biaxial tests with cruciform specimens are collected. Finally, significant modifications proposed in literature are detailed, which can lead to variants or adaptations of the tests with cruciform specimens, increasing their scope. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers)

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