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Polymers and the Environment II

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Circular and Green Polymer Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2024) | Viewed by 9418

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Dr. Jesús-María García-Martínez

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Polymer Engineering Group (GIP), Polymer Science and Technology Institute (ICTP), Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), 28006 Madrid, Spain
Interests: polymers and environment; heterogeneous materials based on polymers; polyolefins; interfacial agents; interphase; interface; functionalization; plastic wastes; blends; composites
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Dr. Emilia P. Collar

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Dear Colleagues,

In the early 1980s, the first global environmental crisis took place, with emphasis on the role played by the presence of plastics in the huge solid waste streams of big cities. It was clear then (as it is now) that the best environmental management practices require solid scientific and technical knowledge (most often under technical standards). Thus, these plastics, once at the end of their useful life, now have their materials (polymers and additives) coalesced into a circular economy strategy conjugated with the non-steady scenarios of other key sectors of the economy, industry, society, and policy. Thus, a twofold perspective—applied and academic—to link tandem polymers and the environment has led, forty years later, to a wide polymer research field devoted to the continuous improvement of the environmental performance of polymers and polymer-based materials. This strategy comprises all steps in the polymer management chain, from the raw materials to the polymers themselves, many of which come from classical and/or renewable sources (so-called bioplastics). There is thus a need to improve the processability, ultimate properties, and performance through environment-friendly additives; the recyclability of the materials; and innovative processes that will allow for better mechanical and/or energy recovery, including chemical recycling. Therefore, this Special Issue welcomes all works related to this frontrunner polymer R&D area.

Dr. Jesús-María García-Martínez
Dr. Emilia P. Collar
Guest Editors

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Keywords

plastics and circular economy
bioplastics
biocomposites
ecofriendly blends
additives and plastics performance
ecofriendly additives
plastic wastes and recycling
plastic wastes valorization routes
life-cycle assessment (LCA)
standardization and legal frameworks

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 3544 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Dynamic Mechanical Analysis on the Compatibilization Effect of Two Different Polymer Waste-Based Compatibilizers in the Fifty/Fifty Polypropylene/Polyamide 6 Blend

by Emilia P. Collar and Jesús-María García-Martínez

Polymers 2024, 16(17), 2523; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16172523 - 5 Sep 2024

Viewed by 362

Abstract

This study aims to examine the 50/50 polypropylene/polyamide 6 (iPP/PA6) system molded under confined flow conditions, both in its original state and after being modified by two different interfacial agents. This study provides two main insights. Firstly, it focuses on a polymer blend close to phase inversion. Secondly, it investigates the impact of using two different types of interfacial agents (derived from polymer waste) to enhance the compatibility between iPP and PA6. Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) has been employed to achieve these objectives. It is important to note that the investigation of the 50/50 iPP/PA6 system is a crucial focus predicted in previous studies, where a series of mechanical properties were evaluated using Box–Wilson design of experiments (DOEs) over the whole compositional range on the iPP/PA6 binary system. Thus, two interfacial modifiers, namely succinic anhydride (SA)-grafted atactic polypropylene with terminal, side, and bridge SA grafts (aPP-SASA) and succinyl-fluoresceine (SF) with bridge succinic anhydride grafting atactic polypropylene (aPP-SFSA), were employed. The authors obtained and characterized these agents. The quantity of these agents used in the blend was identified as a critical coordinate in prior studies conducted by the authors. The processing method used, compression molding under confined conditions, was chosen to minimize any orientation effect on the emerging morphology. All characterization procedures were performed on samples processed by contour machining to retain the blend morphologies as they emerged from the processing stage. Results from WAXS and SAXS synchrotron tests concluded there were no changes in the crystal morphology of the iPP or the PA6 in the blends nor any co-crystallization process throughout the compositional range. These findings, and the long period fits on the PP crystalline phase for the fifty/fifty blends we are discussing, will support the present DMA study. Finally, the efficiency of these interfacial modifiers has been concluded, even in this unfavorable scenario. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and the Environment II)

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19 pages, 9392 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eco-Friendly Cork–Polyurethane Biocomposites for Enhanced Impact Performance: Experimental and Numerical Analysis

by Mateusz Dymek, Mariusz Ptak, Paweł Kaczyński, Fábio A. O. Fernandes, Ricardo J. Alves de Sousa, Gabriel F. Serra and Maria Kurańska

Polymers 2024, 16(7), 887; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16070887 - 24 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1006

Abstract

Cork composites are byproducts from wine stopper production, resulting from the agglomeration of cork granules with a thermoset resin. The resulting compound is a versatile and durable material with numerous industrial applications. Due to its unique properties, such as low-density, high-strength, excellent energy absorption, and good thermal and acoustic insulators, cork composites find room for application in demanding industries such as automotive, construction, and aerospace. However, agglomerated cork typically has a polyurethane matrix derived from petrochemical sources. This study focuses on developing eco-friendly porous polyurethane biocomposites manufactured with the used cooking oil polyol modified with cork. Since cork and polyurethane foam are typically used for impact shock absorption, the manufactured samples were subjected to impact loading. The assessment of crashworthiness is performed through 100 J impact tests. A finite element numerical model was developed to simulate the compression of these new composites under impact, and the model validation was performed. The highest specific absorbed energy was obtained for petrochemical polyol composites with the 3% addition of natural or modified cork. The research conducted in this study showcased the feasibility of substituting certain petrochemical components used for the synthesis of the polyurethane matrix with ecological waste vegetable oil components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and the Environment II)

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15 pages, 3979 KiB

Open AccessArticle

RF Welding of Dielectric Lossless Foam Particles by the Application of a Dielectric Heatable Coating with High Recycling Potential

by Kevin Schneider, Tobias Kleffel and Dietmar Drummer

Polymers 2023, 15(19), 3950; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15193950 - 29 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1376

Abstract

Due to its chemical structure and the resulting dielectric properties, the processing of the commonly used particle foam material, expanded polypropylene (ePP), is limited. Processing within the radio-frequency welding process is therefore only possible with the use of processing aids. In this paper, a new approach for the use of a solid and dielectric heatable coating for the production of three-dimensional welded components out of ePP is presented. For this purpose, three different types of water-soluble polymer polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) were analyzed as potential coating materials. The thermal and dielectric properties of the coating were further adjusted by a modification with glycerol. The maximum amount of glycerol tested was 25% by volume. It influences both the temperature development in the radio-frequency (RF) welding process as well as the adhesive bond between the ePP foam particles. It is shown that the 120 °C approach in the RF welding process resulted in a cohesive bond between the coating layers. In this way, bonded plates can be produced. In mechanical tests with compression of 20%, the manufactured plates show sufficient load capacity. Furthermore, it can be shown that a separation of PVA and ePP by type, and thereby a separation of the foam particles, is possible with the use of hot water. This might open a new way for recycling of particle foams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and the Environment II)

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24 pages, 6364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Studying the Degradation of Three Polymers under Different Chlorine Concentrations and Exposure Times

by Marta L. S. Barbosa, Rúben D. F. S. Costa, Francisco J. G. Silva, Susana R. Sousa, Arnaldo G. Pinto and Bruno O. Ferreira

Polymers 2023, 15(19), 3931; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15193931 - 29 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

Due to chlorine’s ability to kill bacteria and fungi through a chemical reaction, chlorine solutions are commonly used to clean and disinfect numerous public facilities, although these actions are also dependent to the equipment present in those facilities. Accordingly, the interest in studying its effect when in contact with different materials is obvious. This study was carried out through accelerated degradation tests and various analysis methods (optical microscope, scanning electron microscope, and tensile tests). The objective was to observe the wear presented by three polymeric materials, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and polypropylene (PP), when exposed to chlorine’s action in swimming pools and drinking water treatment plants. The resulting effect depends on the chlorine content and the type of contact between the chemical agent and the material. The aim was to select the material less likely to be affected by chlorine through tests and analyses, allowing a longer component life. The use of certain more resistant polymeric materials can drastically reduce maintenance, reducing fundamental factors such as costs, the downtime of municipal facilities, and also the risk to public health. It was concluded that PVC has the most stable behaviour overall when in contact with chlorine solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and the Environment II)

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22 pages, 27419 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stradivari’s Varnish Revisited: Feature Improvements Using Chemical Modification

by Maduka L. Weththimuni, Giacomo Fiocco, Chiara Milanese, Alberto Spinella, Maria Luisa Saladino, Marco Malagodi and Maurizio Licchelli

Polymers 2023, 15(17), 3652; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15173652 - 4 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1265

Abstract

The most widespread varnish formulations used by master violin-makers of the “Italian Golden Age”, including Antonio Stradivari, were based on mixtures of siccative oils (e.g., linseed oil) and natural resins (e.g., colophony). Similar formulations are still used for the finish of contemporary instruments. Although most precious violins made by Stradivari and other Cremonese Masters are kept in museums, several instruments are still played and their finish may undergo deterioration due to contact with the players. Moreover, the decay of the traditional varnish may occur due to mechanical stress and natural aging caused by environmental agents (e.g., exposure to uncontrolled light, humidity, and temperature changes). The main aim of this research work is to investigate the possible improvement of varnish resistance to the decay induced by different aging processes. For this purpose, the traditional varnish (linseed oil/colophony 3:1 w/w) was recreated in the laboratory following an ancient recipe and then it was functionalized with a cross-linking agent (3-Glycidyloxypropyltrimethoxysilane, GLYMO). Plain and functionalized varnishes underwent artificial aging (UV light, temperature, and humidity variations), and their properties were comparatively studied using different techniques. All the results suggest that the functionalized varnish displays improved resistance to the aging process and particularly enhanced photostability and increased hardness (resistance to scratches). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and the Environment II)

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24 pages, 6669 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthesis of a New Molecularly Imprinted Polymer and Optimisation of Phenylglyoxylic Acid Extraction from Human Urine Samples Using a Central Composite Design within the Response Surface Methodology

by Murad. M. Qronfla, Bassem Jamoussi, Radhouane Chakroun, Bandar A. Al-Mur, Riyadh F. Halawani and Fahed A. Aloufi

Polymers 2023, 15(15), 3279; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15153279 - 2 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1262

Abstract

Styrene, a chemical widely used in various industries, undergoes metabolic breakdown in the human body, resulting in the production of phenylglyoxylic acid (PGA). A novel molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) was synthesised for selective extraction and enrichment of PGA in urine samples prior to high-performance liquid chromatography. The MIP employed in this research was a 4-vinylpyridine molecularly imprinted polymer (4-VPMIP) prepared via mass polymerisation using a noncovalent method. The structural and morphological characteristics of the molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) and non-imprinted polymers (NIPs) were evaluated using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The efficiency of the molecularly imprinted solid-phase extraction (MISPE) process was optimised by investigating critical variables such as sample pH, sorbent mass, sample flow rate, and volume of the elution solvent. A central composite design (CCD) within the response surface methodology was utilised to develop separate models for the adsorption and desorption steps. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed the excellent fit of the experimental data to the proposed response models. Under the optimised conditions, the molecularly imprinted polymers exhibited a higher degree of selectivity and affinity for PGA, with a relative selectivity coefficient (α) of 2.79 against hippuric acid. The limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) for PGA were determined to be 0.5 mg/L and 1.6 mg/L, respectively. The recoveries of PGA ranged from 97.32% to 99.06%, with a relative standard deviation (RSD) lower than 4.6%. Furthermore, MIP(4VP)SPE demonstrated the potential for recycling up to three times without significant loss in analyte recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and the Environment II)

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15 pages, 2932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical–Experimental Study of the Action of Trace Amounts of Formaldehyde, Propionaldehyde, and Butyraldehyde as Inhibitors of the Ziegler–Natta Catalyst and the Synthesis of an Ethylene–Propylene Copolymer

by Joaquín Hernández-Fernández, Rodrigo Ortega-Toro and John R. Castro-Suarez

Polymers 2023, 15(5), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051098 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1867

Abstract

The copolymer synthesis process can be affected by failures in the production process or by contaminating compounds such as ketones, thiols, and gases, among others. These impurities act as an inhibiting agent of the Ziegler–Natta (ZN) catalyst affecting its productivity and disturbing the polymerization reaction. In this work, the effect of formaldehyde, propionaldehyde, and butyraldehyde on the ZN catalyst and the way in which it affects the final properties of the ethylene-propylene copolymer is presented by analyzing 30 samples with different concentrations of the mentioned aldehydes along with three control samples. It was determined that the presence of formaldehyde 26 ppm, propionaldehyde 65.2 ppm, and butyraldehyde 181.2 ppm considerably affect the productivity levels of the ZN catalyst; this effect increases as the concentration of aldehydes is higher in the process; likewise, these impurities affect the properties of the final product, such as the fluidity index (MFI), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), bending, tension, and impact, which leads to a polymer with low-quality standards and less resistance to breakage. The computational analysis showed that the complexes formed by formaldehyde, propionaldehyde, and butyraldehyde with the active center of the catalyst are more stable than those obtained by the ethylene-Ti and propylene-Ti complexes, presenting values of −40.5, −47.22, −47.5, −5.2 and −1.3 kcal mol⁻¹ respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and the Environment II)

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