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Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2025 | Viewed by 7745

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Qihui Lyu

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Guest Editor

Research Institute of Interdisciplinary Science, Dongguan University of Technology, Dongguan, China
Interests: composite materials; impact response; damage mechanism; structural mechanics; polymer material

Prof. Dr. Zaoyang Guo

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Guest Editor

School of Science, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, China
Interests: mechanical modeling analysis of composite materials; multi-scale analysis under multiple physical fields; structural mechanics; computational solid mechanics; polymer material

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We invite you to submit your research papers, communications, or review articles to the Special Issue entitled “Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials”.

This Special Issue focuses on exploring the latest progress and frontier trends in the characterization, performance evaluation, and analysis, as well as the applications of polymer systems. We warmly welcome contributions from scholars and researchers. The topics are not limited to the above-mentioned ones, and we encourage you to freely express your innovative research results in related fields. This Special Issue aims to promptly publish recent studies focused on the mechanical response characteristics and performance evaluation of polymer materials. The proposed topics of interest for this Special Issue include, but are not limited to, the following:

Experimental and theoretical studies on the mechanical response;
Evaluation of the fracture toughness, impact resistance, and damage tolerance;
Investigation of the effects of processing parameters and structure factors on the mechanical performance;
Application of advanced characterization techniques in evaluation.

Dr. Qihui Lyu
Prof. Dr. Zaoyang Guo
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

polymer nano-, micro-, and macro-composites
design and manufacturing
mechanical properties
damage failure mechanism
modeling and simulation
machine learning

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 5413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Mechanical, Fatigue, and Creep Properties of PA6/GO Nanocomposites Manufactured by a Combination of Melt and Solvent Mixing

by Mehmet Palabiyik, Serhat Aydin and Oguzkan Senturk

Polymers 2025, 17(9), 1186; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17091186 - 27 Apr 2025

Viewed by 202

Abstract

This study investigated the mechanical, fatigue, and creep properties of polyamide 6 (PA6)/graphene oxide (GO) nanocomposites manufactured by a combination of melt and solvent mixing. Results showed that increasing GO content improved tensile and bending properties and reduced temperature dependence. The tensile modulus and strength of PA6/GO nanocomposite containing 1 wt.% GO (PA6 + 1GO) were measured with an increment of 33% and 37%, respectively, compared with neat PA6. The reduction in tensile strength occurred gradually with the increasing amount of GO. As the temperature increased from 25 °C to 70 °C, the tensile strength of PA6 and PA6 + 1GO decreased by 20% and 4%, respectively. Fatigue tests demonstrated that the rigid GO particles hindered the deformation capability of the matrix and facilitated crack propagation. While the PA6 reached 10⁵ cycles at 60% of its tensile strength, PA6 + 1GO was able to reach 10⁵ cycles at 35% of its tensile strength. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) revealed that GO enhanced both storage modulus and glass transition temperature (T_g). Creep tests demonstrated better deformation resistance under stress in PA6/GO nanocomposites compared to pure PA6. After a 10 h creep test, the decrease in creep strain was observed as 52.4% for PA6 + 1GO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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23 pages, 7536 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Sustainable Polymer Composites Containing Waste Glass and Natural Fibers for Strengthening Purposes

by Cihan Karademir, Hasan Murat Tanarslan, Çağlar Yalçınkaya, Mustafa Furkan Güler, Hasan Ateş, Kutlay Sever, Yasemin Seki and Metehan Atagür

Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1116; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081116 - 20 Apr 2025

Viewed by 142

Abstract

This study investigates the development of sustainable polymer composites for structural strengthening by incorporating waste glass fibers and natural fibers (flax and hemp) into an epoxy matrix, in response to the growing environmental concerns. Mechanical, thermal, and durability-related properties were evaluated through tensile testing, dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), water absorption, and water immersion aging tests. Results showed that incorporating waste glass fibers enhanced the tensile strength and thermal decomposition temperature by 88% and 5.4%, respectively, compared to composites reinforced with solely natural fibers. Water absorption tests indicated that waste glass fiber-reinforced hybrid composites exhibited lower water uptake than flax and hemp fiber-reinforced composites. After water immersion, the tensile strength loss was recorded as 22, 25, and 8.5% for the composites reinforced with hemp, flax, and waste glass fiber, respectively. The findings confirm that incorporating waste glass fibers into natural fiber composites effectively mitigates moisture sensitivity and improves mechanical performance. Hybridizing flax and hemp fibers with waste glass fibers provides a practical and sustainable approach to enhancing composite performance, making them a viable alternative for strengthening reinforced concrete structures requiring long-term resistance. The recycled waste glass fibers employed in this study offered comparable mechanical performance while drastically lowering raw material consumption and environmental impact, in contrast to virgin glass fibers frequently used in earlier investigations. This demonstrates how recycling-oriented composite design can provide both sustainability and performance benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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16 pages, 3783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of a New Stacking Pattern of Laminates with Approximately Constant Bending Stiffness

by Qingnian Liu, Yingfeng Shao, Yong Cai, Long Li and Fan Song

Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081098 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 154

Abstract

To achieve laminates with constant bending stiffness to match the high precision requirement of optical systems made of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP), a new method, the normalized direction factor of bending stiffness (NDFBS), is proposed based on the normalized geometric factor of bending stiffness. Using NDFBS and its variance (VNDFBS), we investigate two common stacking patterns, I and II ([(θ₁)_m/(θ₂)_m/…/(θ_p)_m]_S and [(θ₁/θ₂/…/θ_p)_m]_S) and our proposed new stacking pattern, Pattern III ([(θ₁/θ₂/…/θ_p)_S]_m) based on the initial quasi-isotropic laminates, [θ₁/θ₂/…/θ_p]. The bending stiffness of the stacking sequence [(45/−45/0/90)_S]₂ tends to be more uniform than that of [45/−45/0/90]_2S, and the order of uniformity in bending stiffness of other stacking sequences is [(60/0/−60)_S]₄ > [60/0/−60]_4S > [(60/0/−60)_S]₂ > [60/0/−60]_2S. Both theoretical deviations and experimental observations confirm that as the cycle number m increased, the uniformity in bending stiffness is improved gradually, except for that of Pattern I. As the cycle number increased, the speed of Pattern III approaching the constant bending stiffness was faster than that of Patterns I and II_. Notably, to achieve a nearly identical uniformity in bending stiffness, only the square root of the cycle number of Pattern II was enough for Pattern III. Based on the same initial laminate and cycle number, Pattern III exhibited more uniform bending stiffness and strength, which are appropriate for precision optical components that require dimensional stability, such as space mirrors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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14 pages, 3424 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temperature Dependence of Nonlinear Elastic Moduli of Polystyrene

by Andrey V. Belashov, Anna A. Zhikhoreva, Yaroslav M. Beltukov and Irina V. Semenova

Polymers 2025, 17(8), 1008; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17081008 - 8 Apr 2025

Viewed by 271

Abstract

Nonlinear elastic properties of polymers and polymer-based composites are essential for accurate prediction of their response to dynamic loads, which is crucial in a wide range of applications. These properties can be affected by strain rate, temperature, and pressure. The temperature susceptibility of nonlinear elastic moduli of polymers remains poorly understood. We have recently observed a significant frequency dependence of the nonlinear elastic (Murnaghan) moduli of polystyrene. In this paper we expanded this analysis by the temperature dependence. The measurement methodology was based on the acousto-elastic effect, and involved analysis of the dependencies of velocities of longitudinal and shear single-frequency ultrasonic waves in the sample on the applied static pressure. Measurements were performed at different temperatures in the range of 25–65 °C and at different frequencies in the range of 0.7–3 MHz. The temperature susceptibility of the nonlinear moduli l and m was found to be two orders of magnitude larger than that of linear moduli

λ

and

μ

. At the same time, the observed variations of n modulus with temperature were low and within the measurement tolerance. The observed tendencies can be explained by the shift of nonlinear moduli towards higher frequencies with increasing temperature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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15 pages, 13403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Patch-Based Recycled Composites: Experimental Investigation and Modeling Techniques on Four-Point Bending and Curved Beam Traction Tests

by Roberto Palazzetti, Lorenzo Calervo, Alessandro Milite and Paolo Bettini

Polymers 2025, 17(6), 757; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17060757 - 13 Mar 2025

Viewed by 392

Abstract

Composite materials have experienced a significant increase in demand over the past five decades. This growing usage has led to a considerable production of waste, particularly from prepreg scraps, which can account for up to 35% of the purchased material. This paper explores the recycling of prepreg scraps by cutting them into smaller patches and reassembling them into new sheets. The study follows a dual approach: mechanical testing on two different types of samples is presented, along with numerical modeling strategies designed to capture not only the mechanical behavior of the new recycled material but also the failure modes of the samples. The experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed technique, with samples made from prepreg scraps retaining 85%, 57%, and 78% of the original flexural modulus, strength, and interlaminar strength, respectively. The numerical models not only fit closely to the experimental data but also successfully predict the failure modes of the new material under the two different loading conditions. The primary highlights of this work lie in (i) its innovative approach to recycling prepreg scraps, which is capable of successfully recovering material otherwise sent to landfill; (ii) an ordinated and easy-to-automate recovery process; and (iii) in the modeling strategies of the new material. The study eventually proposes the development of an “equivalent lamina” made of scrap material that can be used in standard lamination processes to manufacture components with load-bearing capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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19 pages, 10999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comprehensive Mechanical Testing of Polyacrylamide Hydrogels: The Impact of Crosslink Density

by Christina G. Antipova, Arthur E. Krupnin, Arthur R. Zakirov, Vsevolod V. Pobezhimov, Daniil A. Romanenko, Dina Yu. Stolyarova, Sergei N. Chvalun and Timofei E. Grigoriev

Polymers 2025, 17(6), 737; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17060737 - 11 Mar 2025

Viewed by 679

Abstract

Mechanical properties are one of the most important characteristics of biomaterials for many different applications, including biomedicine. Soft biomaterials, such as hydrogels, are difficult to characterize by conventional mechanical testing, because their mechanical properties are much lower than required by conventional testing machines. In this work, we aimed to systematically study the mechanical behavior of a model soft material, polyacrylamide hydrogels, under different loading modes: tension, torsion, compression, and indentation. This allowed us to develop a comprehensive approach to the mechanical testing of soft materials. To overcome excessive compression and slippage of the hydrogel samples when fixed in the grips during tension, additional 3D-printed grips were designed. Digital image correlation was used to determine the Poisson’s ratio of the hydrogels. The Young’s modulus values obtained from all types of mechanical tests analyzed were highly correlated. However, for hydrogels with a low crosslinker concentration, 1–2%, tension–compression asymmetry was observed. Moreover, the results of the mechanical tests were verified in indentation tests, including analytical estimation, and full-scale and numerical experiments. We also discuss the limits of using a two-parameter Mooney–Rivlin model for fitting hydrogel uniaxial tension deformation curves, which was unstable for the hydrogels with 4 and 9% crosslinker concentration. The implemented approach provided a comprehensive analysis of the mechanical behavior of biomaterials. The elastic moduli for all hydrogels studied were in the range from 20 to 160 kPa, which corresponds well to human soft tissues, making them a promising material for application as tissue-mimicking phantoms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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24 pages, 56372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structure–Properties Correlations in Novel Copoly(urethane-imide) Films Selectively Destructed Under Thermolysis and Hydrolysis in Alkaline Media

by Andrei L. Didenko, Tatyana E. Sukhanova, Anna S. Nesterova, Gleb V. Vaganov, Viktor K. Lavrentiev, Ilya A. Kabykhno, Natalia A. Grozova, Elena N. Popova, Almaz M. Kamalov, Konstantin S. Polotnyanshchikov, Tatyana S. Anokhina, I. L. Borisov and Vladislav V. Kudryavtsev

Polymers 2025, 17(3), 329; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17030329 - 25 Jan 2025

Viewed by 691

Abstract

The paper describes changes in the structure, morphology, mechanical and thermal properties of porous film samples of poly(4,4′-oxidiphenylene)pyromellitimide prepared as a result of selective destruction of urethane blocks in copolymers composed of pyromellitimide blocks and polyurethane blocks. The initial samples of the new composition of statistical copoly(urethane-imide)s (CoPUIs) were prepared via polycondensation methods using pyromellitic dianhydride (PMDA), 4,4′-oxidyaniline (ODA), 2,4-toluylenediisocyanate (TDI), as well as polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(1,6-hexanediol/neopentylglycol-alt-adipic acid) (ALT) as monomers. The molar ratio of imide and polyurethane blocks in CoPUI was 10:1. The initial films were heated up to 170 °C to complete the polycondensation processes, after which they were subjected to thermolysis and hydrolysis. The thermolysis (thermal degradation) of copolymers was carried out by heating the initial samples to temperatures of 300 °C or 350 °C. Then, the thermolized films were subjected to chemical degradation in hydrolytic baths containing an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide. As a result, urethane blocks were destroyed and removed from the polymer. The resulting products practically did not contain polyurethane links and, in chemical composition, were practically identical to poly(4,4′-oxidiphenylene)pyromellitimide. NMR and IR spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry and dynamic mechanical analysis and mechanical properties testing were used to determine the differences in the structure and properties of the initial copolymers and targeted products. The effect of the conditions of destructive processes on the structure, morphology and mechanical properties of the obtained porous polyimide films was determined. From a practical point of view, the final porous films are promising as membranes for filtering aggressive amide solvents at high temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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21 pages, 4547 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Sensitivity of Acoustic Emission to the Differentiation Between Mode I, II, and III Fracture in Bulk Polymer Materials

by Ali Shivaie Kojouri, Dimitrios G. Aggelis, Javane Karami, Akash Sharma, Wim Van Paepegem, Danny Van Hemelrijck and Kalliopi-Artemi Kalteremidou

Polymers 2025, 17(1), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010125 - 6 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1046

Abstract

There is very limited research in the literature investigating the way acoustic emission signals change when polymer materials are undergoing different fracture modes. This study investigates the capability of acoustic emission to recognize the fracture mode through acoustic emission parameter analysis, and can be considered the first-ever study which examines the impact of different loading conditions, i.e., fracture mode I, mode II, and mode III, on the acoustic emission parameters in polymer materials. To accomplish this, prism-like pre-cracked polymer specimens were tested under the three different fracture modes. Acoustic emission parameters appeared sensitive to the different loading conditions of the pre-cracked specimens, indicating that acoustic emission can be used to distinguish the three fracture modes in polymer materials. Both frequency and time parameters reflect changes in the stress states at the crack tip. The duration and rise time of the waveforms were found to be the most sensitive acoustic emission parameters for identifying the fracture mode, while the average frequency variation can be employed to differentiate between in-plane and out-of-plane fracture modes. In order to interpret the experimental results in relation to wave mechanics, numerical wave propagation simulations for longitudinal and shear excitations were performed to simulate tensile and shear fracture modes and the corresponding emitted waves. An interesting correlation between the experimental and numerical results exists, showcasing acoustic emission’s potential for fracture identification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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14 pages, 3620 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Property Characterization of Virgin and Recycled PLA Blends in Single-Screw Filament Extrusion for 3D Printing

by Reem Aly, Olafisoye Olalere, Aaron Ryder, Mozah Alyammahi and Wael A. Samad

Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3569; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243569 - 20 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1367

Abstract

Additive manufacturing is an attractive technology due to its versatility in producing parts with diverse properties from a single material. However, the process often generates plastic waste, particularly from failed prints, making sustainability a growing concern. Recycling this waste material presents a potential solution for reducing environmental impact while creating new, functional parts. In this study, the feasibility of creating printable filaments from recycled polylactic acid (PLA) waste and virgin PLA pellets was explored. Filaments were manufactured in the lab using a single-screw desktop extruder with four temperature zones, with compositions ranging from 100% virgin PLA to 100% recycled PLA in 10% composition increments. Test samples were 3D printed using a Material Extrusion 3D printer and subjected to tensile testing in conjunction with digital image correlation to evaluate their ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, Young’s modulus, ductility, toughness, and strain distribution. The results indicated that the optimal mechanical properties were observed in specimens made from 100% virgin PLA, 100% recycled PLA, and a 50% virgin/50% recycled PLA blend. Additionally, comparisons with a commercially produced PLA filament revealed that 100% virgin and 100% recycled blends have a 50.33% and 48% higher tensile strength than commercial filament, respectively. However, commercial filaments exhibited higher ductility and toughness than the lab-made extruded filament. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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20 pages, 7227 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Physics-Guided Machine Learning Model for Predicting Viscoelasticity of Solids at Large Deformation

by Bao Qin and Zheng Zhong

Polymers 2024, 16(22), 3222; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223222 - 20 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1337

Abstract

Physics-guided machine learning (PGML) methods are emerging as valuable tools for modelling the constitutive relations of solids due to their ability to integrate both data and physical knowledge. While various PGML approaches have successfully modeled time-independent elasticity and plasticity, viscoelasticity remains less addressed due to its dependence on both time and loading paths. Moreover, many existing methods require large datasets from experiments or physics-based simulations to effectively predict constitutive relations, and they may struggle to model viscoelasticity accurately when experimental data are scarce. This paper aims to develop a physics-guided recurrent neural network (RNN) model to predict the viscoelastic behavior of solids at large deformations with limited experimental data. The proposed model, based on a combination of gated recurrent units (GRU) and feedforward neural networks (FNN), utilizes both time and stretch (or strain) sequences as inputs, allowing it to predict stress dependent on time and loading paths. Additionally, the paper introduces a physics-guided initialization approach for GRU–FNN parameters, using numerical stress–stretch data from the generalized Maxwell model for viscoelastic VHB polymers. This initialization is performed prior to training with experimental data, helping to overcome challenges associated with data scarcity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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16 pages, 7631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Behavior of Rubber Fiber-Reinforced Expansive Soil under Repeated Freeze–Thaw Cycles

by Zhenxing Sun, Rongchang Wang, Zhongnian Yang, Jianhang Lv, Wei Shi and Xianzhang Ling

Polymers 2024, 16(19), 2817; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16192817 - 4 Oct 2024

Viewed by 1125

Abstract

Large volumes of waste tires are generated due to the rapid growth of the transportation industry. An effective method of recycling waste tires is needed. Using rubber from tires to improve problematic soils has become a research topic. In this paper, the dynamic response of rubber fiber-reinforced expansive soil under freeze–thaw cycles is investigated. Dynamic triaxial tests were carried out on rubber fiber-reinforced expansive soil subjected to freeze–thaw cycles. The results showed that with the increase in the number of freeze–thaw cycles, the dynamic stress amplitude and dynamic elastic modulus of rubber fiber-reinforced expansive soils first decrease and then increase, and the damping ratio first increases and then decreases, all of which reach the turning point at the 6th freeze–thaw cycle. The dynamic stress amplitude and dynamic elastic modulus decreased by 59.4% and 52.2%, respectively, while the damping ratio increased by 99.8% at the 6th freeze–thaw cycle. The linear visco-elastic model was employed to describe the hysteretic curve of rubber fiber-reinforced expansive soil. The elastic modulus of the linear elastic element and the viscosity coefficient of the linear viscous element first decrease and then increase with the increase in the number of freeze–thaw cycles; all reach the minimum value at the 6th freeze–thaw cycle. The dynamic stress–dynamic strain curve calculation method is established based on the hyperbolic model and linear visco-elastic model, and the verification shows that the effect is better. The research findings provide guidance for the improvement of expansive soil in seasonally frozen regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanical Response Characteristics and Performance Evaluation of Polymer Materials)

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