Nutrients

Research

13 pages, 271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Parents’ Perceptions about Salt Consumption in Urban Areas of Peru: Formative Research for a Social Marketing Strategy

by Vilarmina Ponce-Lucero, Lorena Saavedra-Garcia, Erik Cateriano-Arévalo, Silvana Perez-Leon, David Villarreal-Zegarra, Diego Horna-Alva and J. Jaime Miranda

Nutrients 2020, 12(1), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010176 - 8 Jan 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5041

Abstract

Background: Salt intakes in Latin America currently double the World Health Organization’s recommendation of 5 g/day. Various strategies to reduce the population’s salt consumption, such as raising awareness using social marketing, have been recommended. This study identified parents’ perceptions of salt consumption to [...] Read more.

Background: Salt intakes in Latin America currently double the World Health Organization’s recommendation of 5 g/day. Various strategies to reduce the population’s salt consumption, such as raising awareness using social marketing, have been recommended. This study identified parents’ perceptions of salt consumption to inform a social marketing strategy focused on urban areas in Peru. Methods: Using a sequential exploratory methods design, parents of pre-school children, of high and low socioeconomic status, provided qualitative data in the form of interviews and focus groups. Following this, quantitative data was obtained via questionnaires, which were sent to all parents. The information was analyzed jointly. Results: 296 people (mean age 35.4, 82% women) participated, 64 in the qualitative and 232 in the quantitative phase of the study. Qualitative data from the first phase revealed that the majority of mothers were in charge of cooking, and female participants expressed that cooking was “their duty” as housewives. The qualitative phase also revealed that despite the majority of the participants considered their salt intake as adequate, half of them mentioned that they have tried to reduce salt consumption, and the change in the flavor of the food was stated as the most difficult challenge to continue with such practice. Quantitative data showed that 67% of participants would be willing to reduce their salt intake, and 79.7% recognized that high salt intake causes hypertension. In total, 84% of participants reaffirmed that mothers were in charge of cooking. There were no salient differences in terms of responses provided by participants from high versus low socioeconomic groups. Conclusions: The results point towards the identification of women as a potential target-audience of a social marketing strategy to promote reductions in salt intake in their families and, therefore, a gender-responsive social marketing intervention is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

15 pages, 12079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sodium Content in Commonly Consumed Foods and Its Contribution to the Daily Intake

by Sonia Rosario Calliope and Norma Cristina Samman

Nutrients 2020, 12(1), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12010034 - 21 Dec 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 6244

Abstract

Salt consumption in many countries of the world exceeds the level recommended by WHO (5 g/day), which is associated with negative effects on health. Public health strategies to achieve the WHO’s objectives include salt content monitoring, improved nutritional labelling and product reformulation. This [...] Read more.

Salt consumption in many countries of the world exceeds the level recommended by WHO (5 g/day), which is associated with negative effects on health. Public health strategies to achieve the WHO’s objectives include salt content monitoring, improved nutritional labelling and product reformulation. This study aimed to determine the sodium content in street food (SF), fast foods (FF) and artisanal foods (AF) of the Northwest of Argentina, which is not regulated. Moisture, ash and sodium were determined according to the Official Methods of Analysis (AOAC) in 189 samples from each of the three categories. The average and range values were: SF 520 (R: 74-932); FF 599 (R: 371-1093) and AF 575 (R: 152-1373) mg Na/100 g. Thus, general sodium content is high, which means that the consumption of a serving from most of the studied foods leads to an individual exceeding the recommended daily intake values. This study contributes to the knowledge of sodium content in evaluated foods and its contribution to the population intake. This reinforces the importance of implementing new public policies and regulations, advising consumers to check food nutritional labels andselect foods lower in salt content, raising food manufacturers’ awarenessabout the importance of reducing sodium content in foods they produce and in public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 580 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Current Sodium Intakes in the United States and the Modeled Effects of Glutamate Incorporation into Select Savory Products

by Taylor C. Wallace, Alexandra E. Cowan and Regan L. Bailey

Nutrients 2019, 11(11), 2691; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11112691 - 7 Nov 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 11599

Abstract

Most Americans have dietary sodium intakes that far exceed recommendations. Given the association of high sodium with hypertension, strategies to reduce sodium intakes are an important public health target. Glutamates, such as monosodium glutamate, represent a potential strategy to reduce overall intakes while [...] Read more.

Most Americans have dietary sodium intakes that far exceed recommendations. Given the association of high sodium with hypertension, strategies to reduce sodium intakes are an important public health target. Glutamates, such as monosodium glutamate, represent a potential strategy to reduce overall intakes while preserving product palatability; therefore, this project aimed to model sodium replacement with glutamates. The National Cancer Institute method was used to estimate current sodium intakes, and intakes resulting from glutamate substitution (25%–45%) in a limited set of food groups for which substitution is possible. Data sets for individuals aged ≥1 year enrolled in the U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013–2016 (n = 16,183) were used in the analyses. Glutamate substitution in accordance with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s food codes was modeled by conservatively altering estimates of sodium intake reductions derived from the published, peer-reviewed literature. The addition of glutamates to certain food categories has the potential to reduce the population’s sodium intake by approximately 3% overall and by 7%–8% among consumers of ≥1 product category in which glutamates were substituted for sodium chloride. Although using glutamates to substitute the amount of sodium among certain food groups may show modest effects on intakes across the population, it is likely to have a more substantial effect on individuals who consume specific products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 632 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Evaluation of the Sodium Content and Compliance with the National Sodium Reduction Targets among Packaged Foods Sold in Costa Rica in 2015 and 2018

by Jaritza Vega-Solano, Adriana Blanco-Metzler, Karla Francela Benavides-Aguilar and JoAnne Arcand

Nutrients 2019, 11(9), 2226; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11092226 - 15 Sep 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4878

Abstract

High blood pressure is a leading cause of death in Costa Rica, with an estimated mortality rate of 30%. The average household sodium intake is two times higher than the World Health Organization recommendation. The consumption of processed foods is an important and [...] Read more.

High blood pressure is a leading cause of death in Costa Rica, with an estimated mortality rate of 30%. The average household sodium intake is two times higher than the World Health Organization recommendation. The consumption of processed foods is an important and growing contributor to sodium intake. The objective of this study was to describe the sodium content of packaged foods (mg/100 g) sold in Costa Rica in 2015 (n = 1158) and 2018 (n = 1016) and to assess their compliance with the national sodium reduction targets. All 6 categories with national targets were analyzed: condiments, cookies and biscuits, bread products, processed meats, bakery products, and sauces. A significant reduction in mean sodium content was found in only 3 of the 19 subcategories (cakes, tomato-based sauces, and tomato paste). No subcategories had statistically significant increases in mean sodium levels, but seasonings for sides/mains, ham, and sausage categories were at least 15% higher in sodium. Compliance with the national sodium targets among all foods increased from 80% in 2015 to 87% in 2018. The results demonstrate that it is feasible to reduce the sodium content in packaged foods in Costa Rica, but more work is needed to continually support a gradual reduction of sodium in packaged foods, including more stringent sodium targets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

9 pages, 249 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changing Sodium Knowledge, Attitudes and Intended Behaviours Using Web-Based Dietary Assessment Tools: A Proof-Of-Concept Study

by Katherine Jefferson, Zhila Semnani-Azad, Christina Wong, Mary R. L’Abbé and JoAnne Arcand

Nutrients 2019, 11(9), 2186; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11092186 - 11 Sep 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3466

Abstract

Despite public health efforts to reduce dietary sodium, sodium intakes in most countries remains high. The purpose of this study was to determine if using novel web-based tools that provide tailored feedback, the Sodium Calculator and Sodium Calculator Plus, improves users’ sodium-related knowledge, [...] Read more.

Despite public health efforts to reduce dietary sodium, sodium intakes in most countries remains high. The purpose of this study was to determine if using novel web-based tools that provide tailored feedback, the Sodium Calculator and Sodium Calculator Plus, improves users’ sodium-related knowledge, attitudes, and intended behaviours (KAB). In this single arm pre- and post-test study, 199 healthy adults aged 18–34 years completed a validated questionnaire to assess changes to sodium-related KAB before and after using the calculators. After using the calculators, the proportion of participants who accurately identified the sodium adequate intake and chronic disease risk reduction level increased (19% to 74% and 23% to 74%, respectively, both p = 0.021). The proportion accurately self-assessing their sodium intake as ‘high’ also increased (41% to 66%, p = 0.021). Several intended behavioural changes were reported, i.e., buying foods with sodium-reduced labels, using the Nutrition Facts table, using spices and herbs instead of salt, and limiting eating out. Evidence-based eHealth tools that assess and provide personalized feedback on sodium intake have the potential to aid in facilitating sodium reduction in individuals. This study is an important first step in evaluating and optimizing the implementation of eHealth tools to help reduce Canadians’ sodium intakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

26 pages, 2930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Changes in Sodium Content of Selected Popular Commercially Processed and Restaurant Foods: Results from the USDA: CDC Sentinel Foods Surveillance Program

by Jaspreet K. C. Ahuja, Ying Li, David B. Haytowitz, Rahul Bahadur, Pamela R. Pehrsson and Mary E. Cogswell

Nutrients 2019, 11(8), 1754; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11081754 - 30 Jul 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5428

Abstract

This report provides an update from the U.S. Department of Agriculture - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Sentinel Foods Surveillance Program, exploring changes in sodium and related nutrients (energy, potassium, total and saturated fat, and total sugar) in popular, sodium-contributing, commercially processed [...] Read more.

This report provides an update from the U.S. Department of Agriculture - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Sentinel Foods Surveillance Program, exploring changes in sodium and related nutrients (energy, potassium, total and saturated fat, and total sugar) in popular, sodium-contributing, commercially processed and restaurant foods with added sodium. In 2010–2013, we obtained 3432 samples nationwide and chemically analyzed 1654 composites plus label information for 125 foods, to determine baseline laboratory and label sodium concentrations, respectively. In 2014–2017, we re-sampled and chemically analyzed 43 of the Sentinel Foods (1181 samples), tested for significant changes of at least ±10% (p < 0.05), in addition to tracking changes in labels for 108 Sentinel Foods. Our results show that the label sodium levels of a majority of the Sentinel Foods had not changed since baseline (~1/3rd of the products reported changes, with twice as many reductions as increases). Laboratory analyses of the 43 Sentinel Foods show that eight foods had significant changes (p < 0.05); sodium content continues to be high and variable, and there was no consistent pattern of changes in related nutrients. Comparisons of changes in labels and laboratory sodium shows consistency for 60% of the products, i.e., similar changes (or no changes) in laboratory and label sodium content. The data from this monitoring program may help public health officials to develop strategies to reduce and monitor sodium trends in the food supply. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 1086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring Sodium Content in Processed Foods in Argentina 2017–2018: Compliance with National Legislation and Regional Targets

by Lorena Allemandi, Maria Victoria Tiscornia, Leila Guarnieri, Luciana Castronuovo and Enrique Martins

Nutrients 2019, 11(7), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071474 - 28 Jun 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5390

Abstract

Sodium intake in Argentina has been estimated to be at least double the dose of 2000 mg/day recommended by WHO, mostly coming from processed foods. Argentina is one of the few countries in the world that have regulated sodium content in certain food [...] Read more.

Sodium intake in Argentina has been estimated to be at least double the dose of 2000 mg/day recommended by WHO, mostly coming from processed foods. Argentina is one of the few countries in the world that have regulated sodium content in certain food products. This study presents an assessment of sodium content in a selection of food groups and categories as reported in the nutrient information panels. We surveyed 3674 food products, and the sodium content of 864 and 1375 of them was compared to the maximum levels according to the Argentinean law and the regional targets, respectively. All food categories presented high variability of sodium content. Over 90% of the products included in the national sodium reduction law were found to be compliant. Food groups with high median sodium, such as condiments, sauces and spreads, and fish and fish products, are not included in the national law. In turn, comparisons with the lower regional targets indicated that almost 50% of the products analyzed had sodium contents above the recommended values. This evidence suggests that enhancing sodium reduction in processed foods may be a necessity for public health objectives and it is also technically feasible in Argentina. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

8 pages, 240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sodium Levels in Packaged Foods Sold in 14 Latin American and Caribbean Countries: A Food Label Analysis

by JoAnne Arcand, Adriana Blanco-Metzler, Karla Benavides Aguilar, Mary R. L’Abbe and Branka Legetic

Nutrients 2019, 11(2), 369; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020369 - 11 Feb 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5764

Abstract

Population-wide sodium reduction is a cost-effective approach to address the adverse health effects associated with excess sodium consumption. Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries consume excess dietary sodium. Packaged foods are a major contributor to sodium intake and a target for sodium reduction [...] Read more.

Population-wide sodium reduction is a cost-effective approach to address the adverse health effects associated with excess sodium consumption. Latin American and Caribbean (LAC) countries consume excess dietary sodium. Packaged foods are a major contributor to sodium intake and a target for sodium reduction interventions. This study examined sodium levels in 12 categories of packaged foods sold in 14 LAC (n = 16,357). Mean sodium levels and percentiles were examined. Sodium levels were compared to regional sodium reduction targets. In this baseline analysis, 82% of foods met the regional target and 47% met the lower target. The greatest proportion of products meeting the regional target were uncooked pasta and noodles (98%), flavored cookies/crackers (97%), seasonings for sides/main dishes (96%), mayonnaise (94%), and cured/preserved meats (91%). A large proportion of foods met the lower target among uncooked pasta and noodles (88%), cooked pasta and noodles (88%), and meat/fish seasonings (88%). The highest the highest median sodium levels were among condiments (7778 mg/100 g), processed meats (870 mg/100 g), mayonnaise (755 mg/100 g), bread products (458 mg/100 g), cheese (643 mg/100 g), and snack foods (625 mg/100 g). These baseline data suggest that sodium reduction targets may need to be more stringent to enable effective lowering of sodium intake. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

9 pages, 238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sources of Dietary Salt in North and South India Estimated from 24 Hour Dietary Recall

by Claire Johnson, Joseph Alvin Santos, Emalie Sparks, Thout Sudhir Raj, Sailesh Mohan, Vandana Garg, Kris Rogers, Pallab K. Maulik, Dorairaj Prabhakaran, Bruce Neal and Jacqui Webster

Nutrients 2019, 11(2), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020318 - 1 Feb 2019

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 6367

Abstract

Recent data on salt intake levels in India show consumption is around 11 g per day, higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended intake of 5 g per day. However, high-quality data on sources of salt in diets to inform a salt [...] Read more.

Recent data on salt intake levels in India show consumption is around 11 g per day, higher than the World Health Organization’s (WHO) recommended intake of 5 g per day. However, high-quality data on sources of salt in diets to inform a salt reduction strategy are mostly absent. A cross-sectional survey of 1283 participants was undertaken in rural, urban, and slum areas in North (n = 526) and South (n = 757) India using an age-, area-, and sex-stratified sampling strategy. Data from two 24-h dietary recall surveys were transcribed into a purpose-built nutrient database. Weighted salt intake was estimated from the average of the two recall surveys, and major contributors to salt intake were identified. Added salt contributed the most to total salt intake, with proportions of 87.7% in South India and 83.5% in North India (p < 0.001). The main food sources of salt in the south were from meat, poultry, and eggs (6.3%), followed by dairy and dairy products (2.6%), and fish and seafood (1.6%). In the north, the main sources were dairy and dairy products (6.4%), followed by bread and bakery products (3.3%), and fruits and vegetables (2.1%). Salt intake in India is high, and this research confirms it comes mainly from added salt. Urgent action is needed to implement a program to achieve the WHO salt reduction target of a 30% reduction by 2025. The data here suggest the focus needs to be on changing consumer behavior combined with low sodium, salt substitution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

12 pages, 1035 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sodium and Potassium Intake, Knowledge Attitudes and Behaviour Towards Salt Consumption Amongst Adults in Podgorica, Montenegro

by Lanfranco D’Elia, Mina Brajović, Aleksandra Klisic, Joao Breda, Jo Jewell, Vuk Cadjenović and Francesco P Cappuccio

Nutrients 2019, 11(1), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11010160 - 13 Jan 2019

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5422

Abstract

Excess salt and inadequate potassium intakes are associated with high cardiovascular disease (CVD). In Montenegro, CVD is the leading cause of death and disability. There is no survey that has directly measured salt and potassium consumption in Montenegro. The aim is to estimate [...] Read more.

Excess salt and inadequate potassium intakes are associated with high cardiovascular disease (CVD). In Montenegro, CVD is the leading cause of death and disability. There is no survey that has directly measured salt and potassium consumption in Montenegro. The aim is to estimate population salt and potassium intakes and explore knowledge, attitudes and behaviour (KAB), amongst the adult population of Podgorica. Random samples of adults were obtained from primary care centres. Participants attended a screening including demographic, anthropometric and physical measurements. Dietary salt and potassium intakes were assessed by 24 h urinary sodium (UNa) and potassium (UK) excretions. Creatinine was measured. KAB was collected by questionnaire. Six hundred and thirty-nine (285 men, 25–65 years) were included in the analysis (response rate 63%). Mean UNa was 186.5 (SD 90.3) mmoL/day, equivalent to 11.6 g of salt/day and potassium excretion 62.5 (26.2) mmoL/day, equivalent to 3.2 g/day. Only 7% of them had a salt intake below the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended target of 5 g/day and 13% ate enough potassium (>90 mmoL/day). The majority (86%) knew that high salt causes ill-health. However, only 44% thought it would be useful to reduce consumption. Salt consumption is high and potassium consumption is low, in men and women living in Podgorica. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sodium Content of Processed Foods Available in the Mexican Market

by Claudia Nieto, Lizbeth Tolentino-Mayo, Catalina Medina, Eric Monterrubio-Flores, Edgar Denova-Gutiérrez and Simón Barquera

Nutrients 2018, 10(12), 2008; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10122008 - 19 Dec 2018

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 9697

Abstract

Background: Sodium intake is related to several adverse health outcomes, such as hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Processed foods are major contributors to the population’s sodium intake. The aim of the present study was to determine sodium levels in Mexican packaged foods, as well [...] Read more.

Background: Sodium intake is related to several adverse health outcomes, such as hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Processed foods are major contributors to the population’s sodium intake. The aim of the present study was to determine sodium levels in Mexican packaged foods, as well as to evaluate the proportion of foods that comply with sodium benchmark targets set by the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency (UK FSA) and those set by the Mexican Commission for the Protection of Health Risks (COFEPRIS). We also evaluated the proportion of foods that exceeded the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) targets. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study that comprised data collected from the package of 2248 processed foods from selected supermarkets in Mexico. Results: Many processed food categories contained an excessive amount of sodium. Processed meats, ham, bacon and sausages, had the highest concentrations. The proportion of foods classified as compliant in our sample was lower for international targets (FSA UK and PAHO) compared to the Mexican COFEPRIS criteria. Conclusions: These data provided a critical baseline assessment for monitoring sodium levels in Mexican processed foods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bread Consumption Is Associated with Elevated Blood Pressure among Adults Living in Mexico City–A Sub-Analysis of the Tlalpan 2020 Study

by Xochitl Ponce-Martínez, Eloisa Colin-Ramirez, Paulina Sánchez-Puerto, Susana Rivera-Mancía, Raúl Cartas-Rosado, Oscar Infante-Vázquez, Maite Vallejo-Allende and Jesús Vargas-Barrón

Nutrients 2018, 10(12), 1969; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10121969 - 13 Dec 2018

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4093

Abstract

Excessive dietary sodium is associated with elevated blood pressure (EBP). Bread products are identified as one of the main sources of daily sodium intake. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the association between bread and others cereal products consumption with [...] Read more.

Excessive dietary sodium is associated with elevated blood pressure (EBP). Bread products are identified as one of the main sources of daily sodium intake. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to evaluate the association between bread and others cereal products consumption with EBP. Frequency intake of a standard serving of bread and other cereal products was recorded and categorized as: ≤3 times/month or never (reference category group) and ≥ once/week. EBP was defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) ≥120 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (DBP) ≥80 mmHg. Raw and adjusted odds ratios (OR) for the association between consumption of the studied food products and blood pressure status were estimated. Overall, 2011 participants aged 37.3 ± 9.1 years old were included. In the models adjusted for relevant covariates, consumption of one piece of bolillo or telera (OR = 1.39; 95% CI = 1.01–1.89) ≥ once/week was associated with an increased risk of EBP, compared to the reference category. Also, participants consuming one bowl of high-fiber breakfast cereal once/week were less likely to have EBP (OR = 0.73; 95% CI = 0.53–0.98). Initiatives to reduce sodium levels in bread products such as bolillo and telera are needed in Mexico to help manage the cardiovascular risk at the population level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sources of Dietary Sodium in Food and Beverages Consumed by Spanish Schoolchildren between 7 and 11 Years Old by the Degree of Processing and the Nutritional Profile

by Esther Cuadrado-Soto, África Peral-Suarez, Aránzazu Aparicio, Jose M. Perea, Rosa M. Ortega and Ana M. López-Sobaler

Nutrients 2018, 10(12), 1880; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10121880 - 3 Dec 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 5135

Abstract

Excessive salt intake has negative effects on health and persists as a dietary problem in Spanish children. However, the analysis of dietary sodium sources has not been extensively studied. A group of 321 children between 7 and 11 years old from five Spanish [...] Read more.

Excessive salt intake has negative effects on health and persists as a dietary problem in Spanish children. However, the analysis of dietary sodium sources has not been extensively studied. A group of 321 children between 7 and 11 years old from five Spanish regional communities was studied. A three-day dietary record was used to determine the contribution of food and beverages to dietary sodium intake. The food consumed was classified based on the level of processing (NOVA classification) and the nutritional profile. Boys consumed more dietary sodium and sodium from ultra-processed food (UPF) than girls (p < 0.05). The main sources of dietary sodium from discretionary food were meat and meat products (25.1%), some ready-to-eat and pre-cooked dishes (7.4%) and sugars and sweets (6.3%). More than 4/5 of the total dietary sodium consumed came from processed foods (PF) and UPF. Ready-to-eat and pre-cooked dishes (14.4%), meat and meat products (10.6%), and cereals (10.2%) were the most relevant UPF. These results demonstrate that a key point for Spanish children is a reduction in the sodium content in PF and UPF, whether these foods are for basic or discretionary consumption. Furthermore, a decrease in the frequency and the quantity of discretionary food consumption should be encouraged. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Journal Menu

Journal Browser

Advances in Dietary Sodium Research to Improve Human Health

Share This Special Issue

Special Issue Editor

Special Issue Information

Keywords

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

Published Papers (13 papers)

Research

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI