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Nutrients
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The Ergogenic Effects of Caffeine Intake in Sport
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The Ergogenic Effects of Caffeine Intake in Sport

A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Sports Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 15 May 2026 | Viewed by 14209

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Ajmol Ali

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
Interests: supplementation for health; wellness and performance; exercise performance; paediatric exercise science; workplace wellbeing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Kaio Vitzel

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Health Sciences, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
Interests: cell physiology; skeletal muscle metabolism; hypertrophy; atrophy; exercise performance; ageing and disease; contractile function and whole body health

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Caffeine remains one of the most widely consumed ergogenic aids across all levels of sport, with up to 74% of elite athletes reportedly using it to enhance performance, especially in cardiorespiratory endurance disciplines. Its popularity stems from its accessibility, minimal side effects, and efficacy at low-to-moderate doses (1-6 mg·kg⁻1 body mass). Mechanistically, adenosine receptor antagonism is considered the primary driver of its performance-enhancing effects, although other pathways such as calcium and fatty acid mobilisation may also contribute. Despite consistent benefits in endurance contexts, results in high-intensity, short-duration sports are more variable. Time-trial protocols offer more sport-relevant insights than time-to-exhaustion tests, yet variability in outcomes persists. Emerging questions around genetic responsiveness, habitual use, youth sports, and individual variability remain unanswered. We invite researchers to contribute to this evolving field—particularly through robust, sport-specific trials and updated meta-analyses, systematic reviews and/or umbrella reviews—to better understand caffeine’s nuanced ergogenic profile and its implications for athletes and practitioners alike. What does the future hold for this ubiquitous pharmacological agent?

Prof. Dr. Ajmol Ali
Dr. Kaio Vitzel
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • time trial
  • muscle endurance
  • sprint
  • anaerobic
  • cardiorespiratory endurance
  • safety
  • optimum dose
  • side effects
  • genetic variability
  • habituation
  • youth
  • sex differences

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Published Papers (3 papers)

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14 pages, 1264 KB  
Article
The Effect of Novel Low-Dose Caffeine Products on Physical Performance
by Andrew Thomas Hulton, Isobel Staines, Oscar Clark, Arun Subramaniam and James Matt Green
Nutrients 2026, 18(5), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu18050791 - 27 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1302
Abstract
Background: Caffeine is an ergogenic aid shown to delay fatigue, increase arousal, and improve performance. Recommended doses are 3–6 mg/kg BM, although evidence supports lower doses (<3 mg/kg). Some conflicting results have highlighted that lower doses may still be ergogenic, and with [...] Read more.
Background: Caffeine is an ergogenic aid shown to delay fatigue, increase arousal, and improve performance. Recommended doses are 3–6 mg/kg BM, although evidence supports lower doses (<3 mg/kg). Some conflicting results have highlighted that lower doses may still be ergogenic, and with new pouch and gum products, further research is warranted. Method: This study investigated the effects of novel low-dose caffeine products on muscular endurance, strength, and power. A repeated-measure, crossover design (pouch 80 mg, gum 80 mg, control gum 0 mg) was employed, recruiting nineteen participants (age 22.4 + 4.8 yrs; weight 72.8 + 16.9 kg; relative caffeine dose 1.1 mg/kg). Participants completed a battery of tests, including 60% 1 RM single leg press (LP) and shoulder press (SP) to exhaustion, counter-movement jump, and isometric mid-thigh pull, in addition to providing ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) during endurance tests. One-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted on all measures associated with physical tasks, with a two-way repeated measures ANOVA conducted for RPE. Results: No significance was observed among conditions for physical tests. However, effect sizes, employing Cohen’s D classification, identified a moderate (d = 0.55) and small (d = 0.45) effect for the caffeine pouch compared to the placebo and caffeine gum for the LP respectively. Further, small effects for the pouch compared to the placebo were observed (d = 0.33) for the SP. Significant differences were produced for RPE during the LP (p = 0.022), with post hoc analysis identifying significant differences between the placebo vs. caffeine pouch (p = 0.032). Conclusion: Low-dose caffeine has the potential to produce meaningful effects on strength endurance, likely linked to caffeine mechanisms reducing RPE. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Ergogenic Effects of Caffeine Intake in Sport)
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Other

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13 pages, 1740 KB  
Systematic Review
Effects of Caffeine Dose and Administration Method on Time-Trial Performance: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis
by Ruiguo Xue, Jin Huang, Bin Chen, Li Ding, Li Guo, Yinhang Cao and Olivier Girard
Nutrients 2025, 17(23), 3792; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17233792 - 3 Dec 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5283
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Caffeine is a well-established ergogenic aid for endurance performance. However, the optimal intake strategy, specifically the administration method and dosage, remains uncertain. This systematic review and network meta-analysis compared the effectiveness of different caffeine administration methods and dosages on time-trial performance. Methods: [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Caffeine is a well-established ergogenic aid for endurance performance. However, the optimal intake strategy, specifically the administration method and dosage, remains uncertain. This systematic review and network meta-analysis compared the effectiveness of different caffeine administration methods and dosages on time-trial performance. Methods: A systematic review and network meta-analysis were conducted following PRISMA guidelines. A systematic search of PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus was conducted up to July 2025. Eligible studies were independently screened and quality-assessed by two reviewers. Pairwise and network meta-analyses were conducted to examine the effects of caffeine administration methods (e.g., capsules/tablets, gum, mouth rinse) and dosages (low: ≤3 mg/kg; moderate: 4–6 mg/kg) on time-trial performance. Results: Forty-eight studies with 612 participants were included. Low-dose capsules most effectively reduced completion time (standardized mean differences [SMD] = −0.34; 95% confidence interval [CI] −0.62, −0.06), followed by moderate-dose capsules (SMD = −0.31; 95% CI: −0.45, −0.17) and moderate-dose gum (SMD = −0.30; 95% CI: −0.57, −0.02). Low-dose capsules also had the highest probability of improving mean power output (SMD = 0.38; 95% CI: 0.09, 0.67), with moderate-dose capsules ranking second (SMD = 0.30; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.48). Conclusions: This systematic review and network meta-analysis identified low-dose caffeine capsules (≈3 mg/kg) as the most effective strategy for improving time-trial performance, with moderate-dose capsules and gum serving as viable alternatives. While these findings provide robust, actionable evidence for practitioners, meaningful inter-individual variability persists. Accordingly, future studies should integrate deeper mechanistic profiling (e.g., genetics and body composition) to advance personalized, evidence-based caffeine supplementation for athletes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Ergogenic Effects of Caffeine Intake in Sport)
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17 pages, 2246 KB  
Systematic Review
Effects of Acute Caffeine Ingestion on Repeated Sprint Ability: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
by Yunteng Wang, Wantang Su, Shiyan Zhang, Li Zhao, Yuanyuan Lv, Boya Gu and Laikang Yu
Nutrients 2025, 17(21), 3475; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17213475 - 5 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6823
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Caffeine is widely recognized as an ergogenic aid, yet evidence regarding its acute effects on repeated sprint ability (RSA) remains inconsistent. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of acute caffeine ingestion on RSA across different populations, exercise [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Caffeine is widely recognized as an ergogenic aid, yet evidence regarding its acute effects on repeated sprint ability (RSA) remains inconsistent. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of acute caffeine ingestion on RSA across different populations, exercise modalities, and dosage levels. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted in the PubMed, EBSCO, Cochrane Library, Web of science, and Scopus databases. Data were pooled using the weighted mean difference (WMD) with 95% confidence interval (CI). Results: Thirteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Acute caffeine ingestion significantly enhanced RSA peak power output (PPO) compared with placebo (WMD, 5.28; 95% CI, 2.49 to 8.07; p = 0.0002). Subgroup analyses revealed significant improvements in both males (WMD, 13.11; 95% CI, 5.63 to 20.59; p = 0.0006) and females (WMD, 4.03; 95% CI, 1.10 to 6.97; p = 0.007). A caffeine dose of ≥6 mg/kg body weight (BW) produced greater ergogenic benefits (WMD, 6.67; 95% CI, 3.32 to 10.02; p < 0.0001) than lower doses (WMD, 2.16; 95% CI, −2.87 to 7.19; p = 0.40). Moreover, a more pronounced enhancement was observed in cycling-based RSA (WMD, 8.77; 95% CI, 1.98 to 15.56; p = 0.01) compared with running-based protocols (WMD, 4.56; 95% CI, 1.58 to 7.55; p = 0.003). Conclusions: Acute caffeine ingestion significantly enhances RSA, particularly at doses ≥6 mg/kg BW. This effect is consistent across both male and female participants, with no statistically significant sex difference observed in the pooled analysis. These findings reinforce caffeine’s role as an effective ergogenic aid for optimizing high-intensity intermittent performance, with the strongest benefits evident in cycling exercise. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Ergogenic Effects of Caffeine Intake in Sport)
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