Micromachines

13 pages, 3683 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Automatic Single-Cell Harvesting for Fetal Nucleated Red Blood Cell Isolation on a Self-Assemble Cell Array (SACA) Chip

by Hsin-Yu Yang, Che-Hsien Lin, Yi-Wen Hu, Chih-Hsuan Chien, Mu-Chi Huang, Chun-Hao Lai, Jen-Kuei Wu and Fan-Gang Tseng

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1515; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121515 - 20 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2471

Abstract

(1) Background: Fetal chromosomal examination is a critical component of modern prenatal testing. Traditionally, maternal serum biomarkers such as free β-human chorionic gonadotropin (Free β-HCG) and pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPPA) have been employed for screening, achieving a detection rate of approximately 90% [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Fetal chromosomal examination is a critical component of modern prenatal testing. Traditionally, maternal serum biomarkers such as free β-human chorionic gonadotropin (Free β-HCG) and pregnancy-associated plasma protein A (PAPPA) have been employed for screening, achieving a detection rate of approximately 90% for fetuses with Down syndrome, albeit with a false positive rate of 5%. While amniocentesis remains the gold standard for the prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities, including Down syndrome and Edwards syndrome, its invasive nature carries a significant risk of complications, such as infection, preterm labor, or miscarriage, occurring at a rate of 7 per 1000 procedures. Beyond Down syndrome and Edwards syndrome, other chromosomal abnormalities, such as trisomy of chromosomes 9, 16, or Barr bodies, pose additional diagnostic challenges. Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) has emerged as a powerful alternative for fetal genetic screening by leveraging maternal blood sampling. However, due to the extremely low abundance of fetal cells in maternal circulation, NIPT based on fetal cells faces substantial technical challenges. (2) Methods: Fetal nucleated red blood cells (FnRBCs) were first identified in maternal circulation in a landmark study published in The Lancet in 1959. Due to their fetal origin and presence in maternal peripheral blood, FnRBCs represent an ideal target for non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT). In this study, we introduce a novel self-assembled cell array (SACA) chip system, a microfluidic-based platform designed to efficiently settle and align cells into a monolayer at the chip’s base within five minutes using lateral flow dynamics and gravity. This system is integrated with a fully automated, multi-channel fluorescence scanning module, enabling the real-time imaging and molecular profiling of fetal cells through fluorescence-tagged antibodies. By employing a combination of Hoechst+/CD71+/HbF+/CD45− markers, the platform achieves the precise enrichment and isolation of FnRBCs at the single-cell level from maternal peripheral blood. (3) Results: The SACA chip system effectively reduces the displacement of non-target cells by 31.2%, achieving a single-cell capture accuracy of 97.85%. This isolation and enrichment system for single cells is well suited for subsequent genetic analysis. Furthermore, the platform achieves a high purity of isolated cells, overcoming the concentration detection limit of short tandem repeat (STR) analysis, demonstrating its capability for reliable non-invasive prenatal testing. (4) Conclusions: This study demonstrates that the SACA chip, combined with an automated image positioning system, can efficiently isolate single fetal nucleated red blood cells (FnRBCs) from 50 million PBMCs in 2 mL of maternal blood, completing STR analysis within 120 min. With higher purification efficiency compared to existing NIPT methods, this platform shows great promise for prenatal diagnostics and potential applications in other clinical fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Microfluidic Technology in Bioengineering)

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12 pages, 3116 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Origin of the Temperature Dependence of Gate-Induced Drain Leakage-Assisted Erase in Three-Dimensional nand Flash Memories

by David G. Refaldi, Gerardo Malavena, Luca Chiavarone, Alessandro S. Spinelli and Christian Monzio Compagnoni

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1516; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121516 - 20 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1697

Abstract

Through detailed experimental and modeling activities, this paper investigates the origin of the temperature dependence of the Erase operation in 3D nand flash arrays. First of all, experimental data collected down to the cryogenic regime on both charge-trap and floating-gate arrays are provided [...] Read more.

Through detailed experimental and modeling activities, this paper investigates the origin of the temperature dependence of the Erase operation in 3D nand flash arrays. First of all, experimental data collected down to the cryogenic regime on both charge-trap and floating-gate arrays are provided to demonstrate that the reduction in temperature makes cells harder to Erase irrespective of the nature of their storage layer. This evidence is then attributed to the weakening, with the decrease in temperature, of the gate-induced drain leakage (GIDL) current exploited to set the electrostatic potential of the body of the nand strings during Erase. Modeling results for the GIDL-assisted Erase operation, finally, allow not only to support this conclusion but also to directly correlate the change with temperature of the electrostatic potential of the string body with the change with temperature of the erased threshold-voltage of the memory cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section E：Engineering and Technology)

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12 pages, 3196 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Hollow Fiber Microreactor Combined with Digital Twin to Optimize the Antimicrobial Evaluation Process

by Kazuhiro Noda, Toshihiro Kasama, Marie Shinohara, Masakaze Hamada, Yukiko T. Matsunaga, Madoka Takai, Yoshikazu Ishii and Ryo Miyake

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1517; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121517 - 20 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1303

Abstract

In order to reproduce pharmacokinetics (PK) profiles seen in vivo, the Hollow Fiber Infection Model (HFIM) is a useful in vitro module in the evaluation of antimicrobial resistance. In order to reduce the consumption of culture medium and drugs, we developed a hollow [...] Read more.

In order to reproduce pharmacokinetics (PK) profiles seen in vivo, the Hollow Fiber Infection Model (HFIM) is a useful in vitro module in the evaluation of antimicrobial resistance. In order to reduce the consumption of culture medium and drugs, we developed a hollow fiber microreactor applicable to the HFIM by integrating the HFIM function. Next, we constructed a novel control method by using the “digital twin” of the microreactor to achieve precise concentration control. By integrating functions of the HFIM, the extra-capillary space volume was reduced to less than 1/10 of conventional HFIM. The control method with the digital twin can keep drug concentration in the extra-capillary space within an error of 10% under simulated drug destruction. The control method with the digital twin can also stabilize the drug concentration both in the intra-capillary space and the extra-capillary space within 15 min. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section C：Chemistry)

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9 pages, 2086 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

White Light-Emitting Flexible Displays with Quantum-Dot Film and Greenish-Blue Organic Light-Emitting Diodes

by Young Woo Kim, Seojin Kim, Chaeyeong Lee, Joo Hyun Jeong, Yun Hyeok Jeong, Yuhwa Bak, Seo Hyeon Kim, Sung Jin Park, Ko Eun Ham, Doeun Lee, Junpyo Song, Youngjin Song, Seung-Chan Jung, Oh Kwan Kwon, Jae-Hee Han, Sang Jik Kwon, Eou-Sik Cho and Yongmin Jeon

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1518; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121518 - 20 Dec 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2953

Abstract

White organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) represent a significant technology in the display industry for the achievement of full color. However, sophisticated technologies are required for white light emission. In this paper, we developed a simple white light-emitting display device using a quantum-dot (QD) [...] Read more.

White organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) represent a significant technology in the display industry for the achievement of full color. However, sophisticated technologies are required for white light emission. In this paper, we developed a simple white light-emitting display device using a quantum-dot (QD) film and a greenish-blue OLED. The resulting QD-OLED produced a high-purity white color with a color temperature of 6000 K (CIE_x,y = 0.32, 0.34) and achieved a maximum brightness of 14,638 cd/m² at 7 V. This paper reports the fabrication of a white light-emitting QD-OLED with a straightforward structure and technology suitable for flexible displays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Organic Electronic-Based Devices for Biomedical Applications)

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9 pages, 2483 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

PET-PZT Dielectric Polarization: Electricity Harvested from Photon Energy

by Alex Nikolov, Sohail Murad and Jongju Lee

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1505; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121505 - 18 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1644

Abstract

The effect of residual stress or heat on ferroelectrics used to convert photons into electricity was investigated. The data analysis reveals that when the PET-PZT piezoelectric transducer is UV-irradiated with a 405 nm wavelength, it becomes a photon–heat–stress electric energy converter and capacitator. [...] Read more.

The effect of residual stress or heat on ferroelectrics used to convert photons into electricity was investigated. The data analysis reveals that when the PET-PZT piezoelectric transducer is UV-irradiated with a 405 nm wavelength, it becomes a photon–heat–stress electric energy converter and capacitator. Our objective was to evaluate the PET-PZT photon–heat–stress electric energy conversion performance and the role of the light’s wavelength and intensity. Converting waste energy from energy-intensive processes and systems is crucial to reducing the environmental impact and achieving net-zero emissions. To achieve these, innovative materials are needed to efficiently convert ambient energy into electricity through various physical mechanisms, such as the photovoltaic effect, thermoelectricity, piezoelectricity, triboelectricity, and radiofrequency wireless power transfer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Piezoelectric Transducers: Materials, Devices and Applications)

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15 pages, 4141 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Role of Re-Entrant Microstructures in Modulating Droplet Evaporation Modes

by Hoang Huy Vu, Nam-Trung Nguyen and Navid Kashaninejad

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1507; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121507 - 18 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1286

Abstract

The evaporation dynamics of sessile droplets on re-entrant microstructures are critical for applications in microfluidics, thermal management, and self-cleaning surfaces. Re-entrant structures, such as mushroom-like shapes with overhanging features, trap air beneath droplets to enhance non-wettability. The present study examines the evaporation of [...] Read more.

The evaporation dynamics of sessile droplets on re-entrant microstructures are critical for applications in microfluidics, thermal management, and self-cleaning surfaces. Re-entrant structures, such as mushroom-like shapes with overhanging features, trap air beneath droplets to enhance non-wettability. The present study examines the evaporation of a water droplet on silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon dioxide (SiO₂) re-entrant structures, focusing on the effects of material composition and solid area fraction on volume reduction, contact angle, and evaporation modes. Using surface free energy (SFE) as an indicator of wettability, we find that the low SFE of SiC promotes quick depinning and contact line retraction, resulting in shorter CCL phases across different structures. For instance, the CCL phase accounts for 55–59% of the evaporation time on SiC surfaces, while on SiO₂ it extends to 51–68%, reflecting a 7–23% increase in duration due to stronger pinning effects. Additionally, narrower pillar gaps, which increase the solid area fraction, further stabilize droplets by extending both CCL and constant contact angle (CCA) phases, while wider gaps enable faster depinning and evaporation. These findings illustrate how hydrophobicity (via SFE) and structural geometry (via solid area fraction) influence microscale interactions, offering insights for designing surfaces with optimized liquid management properties. Full article

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19 pages, 506 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

MOSFET-Based Voltage Reference Circuits in the Last Decade: A Review

by Elisabetta Moisello, Edoardo Bonizzoni and Piero Malcovati

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1504; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121504 - 17 Dec 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6998

Abstract

Voltage reference circuits are a basic building block in most integrated microsystems, covering a wide spectrum of applications. Hence, they constitute a subject of great interest for the entire microelectronics community. MOSFET-based solutions, in particular, have emerged as the implementation of choice for [...] Read more.

Voltage reference circuits are a basic building block in most integrated microsystems, covering a wide spectrum of applications. Hence, they constitute a subject of great interest for the entire microelectronics community. MOSFET-based solutions, in particular, have emerged as the implementation of choice for realizing voltage reference circuits, given the supply voltage scaling and the ever-lower power consumption specifications in various applications. For these reasons, this paper aims to review MOSFET-based voltage reference circuits, illustrating their principles of operation, as well as presenting a detailed overview of the state-of-the-art, in order to paint an accurate picture of the encountered challenges and proposed solutions found in the field in the last decade, thus providing a starting point for future research in the field. Full article

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21 pages, 4915 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Cascaded Metasurfaces for Advanced Integrated Devices

by Lingyun Zhang, Zeyu Zhao, Leying Tao, Yixiao Wang, Chi Zhang, Jianing Yang, Yongqiang Jiang, Huiqi Duan, Xiaoguang Zhao, Shaolong Chen and Zilun Wang

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1482; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121482 - 10 Dec 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3437

Abstract

This paper reviews the field of cascaded metasurfaces, which are advanced optical devices formed by stacking or serially arranging multiple metasurface layers. These structures leverage near-field and far-field electromagnetic (EM) coupling mechanisms to enhance functionalities beyond single-layer metasurfaces. This review comprehensively discusses the [...] Read more.

This paper reviews the field of cascaded metasurfaces, which are advanced optical devices formed by stacking or serially arranging multiple metasurface layers. These structures leverage near-field and far-field electromagnetic (EM) coupling mechanisms to enhance functionalities beyond single-layer metasurfaces. This review comprehensively discusses the physical principles, design methodologies, and applications of cascaded metasurfaces, focusing on both static and dynamic configurations. Near-field-coupled structures create new resonant modes through strong EM interactions, allowing for efficient control of light properties like phase, polarization, and wave propagation. Far-field coupling, achieved through greater interlayer spacing, enables traditional optical methods for design, expanding applications to aberration correction, spectrometers, and retroreflectors. Dynamic configurations include tunable devices that adjust their optical characteristics through mechanical motion, making them valuable for applications in beam steering, varifocal lenses, and holography. This paper concludes with insights into the potential of cascaded metasurfaces to create multifunctional, compact optical systems, setting the stage for future innovations in miniaturized and integrated optical devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Terahertz and Infrared Metamaterial Devices, 3nd Edition)

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18 pages, 6309 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Near-Field Direct Writing Based on Piezoelectric Micromotion for the Programmable Manufacturing of Serpentine Structures

by Xun Chen, Xuanzhi Zhang, Jianfeng Sun, Rongguang Zhang, Xuanyang Liang, Jiecai Long, Jingsong Yao, Xin Chen, Han Wang, Yu Zhang, Jiewu Leng and Renquan Lu

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1478; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121478 - 7 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1582

Abstract

Serpentine microstructures offer excellent physical properties, making them highly promising in applications in stretchable electronics and tissue engineering. However, existing fabrication methods, such as electrospinning and lithography, face significant challenges in producing microscale serpentine structures that are cost-effective, efficient, and controllable. These methods [...] Read more.

Serpentine microstructures offer excellent physical properties, making them highly promising in applications in stretchable electronics and tissue engineering. However, existing fabrication methods, such as electrospinning and lithography, face significant challenges in producing microscale serpentine structures that are cost-effective, efficient, and controllable. These methods often struggle with achieving precise control over fiber morphology and scalability. In this study, we developed a near-field direct writing (NFDW) technique incorporating piezoelectric micromotion to enable the precise fabrication of serpentine micro-/nanofibers by incorporating micromotion control with macroscopic movement. Modifying the fiber structure allowed for adjustments to the mechanical properties, including tunable extensibility and distinct characteristics. Through the control of the frequency and amplitude of the piezoelectric signal, the printing errors were reduced to below 9.48% in the cycle length direction and 6.33% in the peak height direction. A predictive model for the geometrical extensibility of serpentine structures was derived from Legendre’s incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind and incorporated an error correction factor, which significantly reduced the calculation errors in predicting geometric elongation, by 95.85%. The relationship between microstructure bending and biomimetic non-linear mechanical behavior was explored through tensile testing. By controlling the input electrical signals, highly ordered serpentine microstructures were successfully fabricated, demonstrating potential for use in biomimetic mechanical scaffolds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Manufacturing Technology and Systems, 3rd Edition)

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23 pages, 11501 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advances in 2D Molybdenum Disulfide Transistors for Flexible and Wearable Electronics

by Kyoungwon Kwak, Hyewon Yoon, Seongin Hong and Byung Ha Kang

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1476; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121476 - 5 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4603

Abstract

As the trajectory of developing advanced electronics is shifting towards wearable electronics, various methods for implementing flexible and bendable devices capable of conforming to curvilinear surfaces have been widely investigated. In particular, achieving high-performance and stable flexible transistors remains a significant technical challenge, [...] Read more.

As the trajectory of developing advanced electronics is shifting towards wearable electronics, various methods for implementing flexible and bendable devices capable of conforming to curvilinear surfaces have been widely investigated. In particular, achieving high-performance and stable flexible transistors remains a significant technical challenge, as transistors are fundamental components of electronics, playing a key role in overall performance. Among the wide range of candidates for flexible transistors, two-dimensional (2D) molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂)-based transistors have emerged as potential solutions to address these challenges. Unlike other 2D materials, the 2D MoS₂ offers numerous advantages, such as high carrier mobility, a tunable bandgap, superior mechanical strength, and exceptional chemical stability. This review emphasizes the novel techniques of the fabrication process, structure, and material to achieve flexible MoS₂ transistor-based applications. Furthermore, the distinctive feature of this review is its focus on studies published in high-impact journals over the past decade, emphasizing their methods for developing MoS₂ transistors into various applications. Finally, the review addresses technical challenges and provides an outlook for flexible and wearable MoS₂ transistors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Wearable and Flexible Sensor Devices and Their Future Prospects)

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59 pages, 20006 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Magnetoelectric BAW and SAW Devices: A Review

by Bin Luo, Prasanth Velvaluri, Yisi Liu and Nian-Xiang Sun

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1471; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121471 - 3 Dec 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 8671

Abstract

Magnetoelectric (ME) devices combining piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials have emerged as powerful tools to miniaturize and enhance sensing and communication technologies. This paper examines recent developments in bulk acoustic wave (BAW) and surface acoustic wave (SAW) ME devices, which demonstrate unique capabilities in [...] Read more.

Magnetoelectric (ME) devices combining piezoelectric and magnetostrictive materials have emerged as powerful tools to miniaturize and enhance sensing and communication technologies. This paper examines recent developments in bulk acoustic wave (BAW) and surface acoustic wave (SAW) ME devices, which demonstrate unique capabilities in ultra-sensitive magnetic sensing, compact antennas, and quantum applications. Leveraging the mechanical resonance of BAW and SAW modes, ME sensors achieve the femto- to pico-Tesla sensitivity ideal for biomedical applications, while ME antennas, operating at acoustic resonance, allow significant size reduction, with high radiation gain and efficiency, which is suited for bandwidth-restricted applications. In addition, ME non-reciprocal magnetoacoustic devices using hybrid magnetoacoustic waves present novel solutions for RF isolation, which have also shown potential for the efficient control of quantum defects, such as negatively charged nitrogen-vacancy (NV⁻) centers. Continued advancements in materials and device structures are expected to further enhance ME device performance, positioning them as key components in future bio-sensing, wireless communication, and quantum information technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Surface and Bulk Acoustic Wave Devices)

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14 pages, 4290 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Thermal Cycler Based on Magnetic Induction Heating and Anti-Freezing Water Cooling for Rapid PCR

by Yaping Xie, Qin Jiang, Chang Chang, Xin Zhao, Haochen Yong, Xingxing Ke and Zhigang Wu

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1462; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121462 - 30 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 7371

Abstract

Distinguished by its exceptional sensitivity and specificity, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a pivotal technology for pathogen detection. However, traditional PCR instruments that employ thermoelectric cooling (TEC) are often constrained by cost, efficiency, and performance variability resulting from the fluctuations in ambient temperature. [...] Read more.

Distinguished by its exceptional sensitivity and specificity, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a pivotal technology for pathogen detection. However, traditional PCR instruments that employ thermoelectric cooling (TEC) are often constrained by cost, efficiency, and performance variability resulting from the fluctuations in ambient temperature. Here, we present a thermal cycler that utilizes electromagnetic induction heating at 50 kHz and anti-freezing water cooling with a velocity of 0.06 m/s to facilitate rapid heating and cooling of the PCR reaction chamber, significantly enhancing heat transfer efficiency. A multi-physics theoretical heat transfer model, developed using the digital twin approach, enables precise temperature control through advanced algorithms. Experimental results reveal average heating and cooling rates of 14.92 °C/s and 13.39 °C/s, respectively, significantly exceeding those of conventional methods. Compared to commercial PCR instruments, the proposed system further optimizes cost, efficiency, and practicality. Finally, PCR experiments were successfully performed using cDNA (Hepatitis B virus) at various concentrations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers of Micromachines in Biology and Biomedicine 2024)

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29 pages, 10952 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Resolution Enhancement Strategies in Photoacoustic Microscopy: A Comprehensive Review

by Jinying Zhang, Yifan Shi, Yexiaotong Zhang, Haoran Liu, Shihao Li and Linglu Liu

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1463; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121463 - 30 Nov 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7937

Abstract

Photoacoustic imaging has emerged as a promising modality for medical imaging since its introduction. Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM), which is based on the photoacoustic effect, combines the advantages of both optical and acoustic imaging modalities. PAM facilitates high-sensitivity, high-resolution, non-contact, and non-invasive imaging by [...] Read more.

Photoacoustic imaging has emerged as a promising modality for medical imaging since its introduction. Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM), which is based on the photoacoustic effect, combines the advantages of both optical and acoustic imaging modalities. PAM facilitates high-sensitivity, high-resolution, non-contact, and non-invasive imaging by employing optical absorption as its primary contrast mechanism. The ability of PAM to specifically image parameters such as blood oxygenation and melanin content makes it a valuable addition to the suite of modern biomedical imaging techniques. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the diverse technical approaches and methods employed by researchers to enhance the resolution of photoacoustic microscopy. Firstly, the fundamental principles of the photoacoustic effect and photoacoustic imaging will be presented. Subsequently, resolution enhancement methods for both acoustic-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (AR-PAM) and optical-resolution photoacoustic microscopy (OR-PAM) will be discussed independently. Finally, the aforementioned resolution enhancement methods for photoacoustic microscopy will be critically evaluated, and the current challenges and future prospects of this technology will be summarized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photoacoustic-Based Sensing Systems: Advances, Applications, and Innovative Measurement Strategies)

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13 pages, 8436 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Series-Fed Microstrip Patch Antenna Array with Additive-Manufactured Foldable Honeycomb-Shaped Substrate

by Sima Noghanian, Yi-Hsiang Chang, Patricio Guerron and Reena Dahle

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1449; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121449 - 29 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1783

Abstract

This paper presents a novel foldable S-band microstrip patch antenna array operating in the 2.4–2.45 GHz band. The substrate is designed to allow the array to be folded and arranged in tiles, forming a versatile, reconfigurable antenna array. Additive manufacturing is used to [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel foldable S-band microstrip patch antenna array operating in the 2.4–2.45 GHz band. The substrate is designed to allow the array to be folded and arranged in tiles, forming a versatile, reconfigurable antenna array. Additive manufacturing is used to fabricate the substrate for ease of fabrication and flexibility in its design. The major challenge in this type of design is creating a proper method of feeding the elements while maintaining the array’s optimal performance. A novel hinge design that can hold a coaxial cable for the series-fed array is introduced. The hinge provides the capability of folding the array from a flat orientation into various folded orientations. In this paper, a 2 × 1 microstrip array unit is presented as proof of concept. The antenna was fabricated and measured, and the results of the measurements are in close agreement with the simulations. The antenna can provide a gain as high as 7.72 dBi in flat conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Potential of 5G and Millimeter-Wave Array Antennas)

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11 pages, 4563 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Spectroscopy Solution for Contactless Conductivity Detection in Capillary Electrophoresis

by Tomas Drevinskas, Audrius Maruška, Hirotaka Ihara, Makoto Takafuji, Linas Jonušauskas, Domantas Armonavičius, Mantas Stankevičius, Kristina Bimbiraitė-Survilienė, Elzbieta Skrzydlewska, Ona Ragažinskienė, Yutaka Kuwahara, Shoji Nagaoka, Vilma Kaškonienė and Loreta Kubilienė

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1430; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121430 - 28 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1649

Abstract

This paper introduces a novel contactless single-chip detector that utilizes impedance-to-digital conversion technology to measure impedance in the microfluidic channel or capillary format analytical device. The detector is designed to operate similarly to capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detectors for capillary electrophoresis or chromatography [...] Read more.

This paper introduces a novel contactless single-chip detector that utilizes impedance-to-digital conversion technology to measure impedance in the microfluidic channel or capillary format analytical device. The detector is designed to operate similarly to capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detectors for capillary electrophoresis or chromatography but with the added capability of performing frequency sweeps up to 200 kHz. At each recorded data point, impedance and phase-shift data can be extracted, which can be used to generate impedance versus frequency plots, or phase-shift versus frequency plots. Real and imaginary parts can also be calculated from the data, allowing for the generation of Nyquist diagrams. This detector represents the first of its kind in the contactless conductivity class to provide spectrum-type data, as demonstrated in capillary electrophoresis experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flows in Micro- and Nano-Systems)

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11 pages, 2125 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Novel Deposition Technique for Fabricating Films with Customized Thickness Profiles

by Chi-Yung Hsieh, Yu-Chi Lin, Xuan-Shan Huang, Jing-Ting Lin and Cheng-Sheng Huang

Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1412; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121412 - 23 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1309

Abstract

This study introduces a novel deposition technique capable of depositing thin films with any arbitrary thickness profile. The apparatus consists of a fixed shadow mask and a rotating sample carrier plate. The shadow mask features a specifically designed opening curve that corresponds to [...] Read more.

This study introduces a novel deposition technique capable of depositing thin films with any arbitrary thickness profile. The apparatus consists of a fixed shadow mask and a rotating sample carrier plate. The shadow mask features a specifically designed opening curve that corresponds to the particular thickness profile of the deposited film. We successfully designed two shadow masks and used them to deposit films with linear thickness gradients of 49.3 and 86.8 Å/mm and films with sinusoidal thickness profiles with a period of 40 mm. Furthermore, a linear variable filter was designed on the basis of a quarter-wavelength stack of Si₃N₄ and SiO₂, combined with a TiO₂ cavity layer with a linearly varying thickness. By coaxially rotating the sample carrier plate relative to the shadow mask, films with the desired thickness profiles could be fabricated in a single deposition step without the need for additional rotational or translational devices inside the deposition chamber. By rotating the carrier plate, the chips attached at different circumferential positions can achieve consistent thickness profiles, making this method well-suited for mass production. Full article

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15 pages, 5497 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Spatial Discrimination Limit Analysis of Macrophage Phagocytosis Between Target Antigens and Non-Target Objects Using Microcapillary Manipulation Assay

by Maiha Ando, Dan Horonushi, Haruka Yuki, Shinya Kato, Amane Yoshida and Kenji Yasuda

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111394 - 18 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1840

Abstract

During phagocytosis, the FcGR–IgG bond is thought to be necessary to promote cell-membrane extension as the zipper mechanism. However, does this zipper mechanism provide a spatial antigen discrimination capability that allows macrophages to selectively phagocytose only antigens, especially for clusters with a mixture [...] Read more.

During phagocytosis, the FcGR–IgG bond is thought to be necessary to promote cell-membrane extension as the zipper mechanism. However, does this zipper mechanism provide a spatial antigen discrimination capability that allows macrophages to selectively phagocytose only antigens, especially for clusters with a mixture of antigens and non-antigens? To elucidate the ability and limitation of the zipper mechanism, we fed a coupled 2 μm IgG-coated and 4.5 μm non-coated polystyrene bead mixtures to macrophages and observed their phagocytosis. Macrophage engulfed the mixed clusters, including the 4.5 μm non-coated polystyrene part, indicating that the non-coated particles can be engulfed even without the zipper mechanism as far as coupled to the opsonized particles. In contrast, when the non-opsonized particle part was held by the microcapillary manipulation assay, macrophages pinched off the non-coated polystyrene particle part and internalized the opsonized particle part only. The results suggest that (1) an IgG-coated surface is needed to anchor phagocytosis by cell-membrane protrusion; however, (2) once the antibody-dependent cell phagocytosis is started, phagocytosis can proceed with the uncoated objects as the followers of the internalizing opsonized particles even without the support of the zipper mechanism. They may also indicate the concern of misleading the immune system to target unexpected objects because of their aggregation with target pathogens and the possibility of new medical applications to capture the non-opsonized target objects by the aggregation with small antigens to activate an immune response. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section B：Biology and Biomedicine)

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16 pages, 5328 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Polarization-Insensitive and Highly Sensitive THz Metamaterial Multi-Band Perfect Absorber

by Gang Tao, Qian Zhao, Qianju Song, Zao Yi, Yougen Yi and Qingdong Zeng

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1388; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111388 - 16 Nov 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1438

Abstract

In this article, we present a terahertz (THz) metamaterial absorber that blends two types of coordinated materials: Dirac semimetals and vanadium dioxide. Compared to other absorbers on the market, which are currently non-adjustable or have a single adjustment method, our absorber is superior [...] Read more.

In this article, we present a terahertz (THz) metamaterial absorber that blends two types of coordinated materials: Dirac semimetals and vanadium dioxide. Compared to other absorbers on the market, which are currently non-adjustable or have a single adjustment method, our absorber is superior because it has two coordinated modes with maximum adjustment ranges of 80.7% and 0.288 THz. The device contains four flawless absorption peaks (M1, M2, M3, and M4) spanning the frequency range of 2.0 THz to 6.0 THz, all with absorption rates greater than 99%. After calculation, the relative impedance of the device matches with that in free space, resulting in perfect absorption. In addition, our absorber has extremely excellent polarization insensitivity but is highly sensitive to changes in the environmental refractive index, with the highest environmental refractive index sensitivity of 716 GHz/RIU (gigahertz per refractive index unit). To sum up, the terahertz metamaterial absorber we showed has four perfect absorption peaks, high sensitivity, and stable polarization. This means it could be useful in areas like changing electromagnetic waves, making new sensors, and switching. Full article

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16 pages, 9416 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Image Processing Approach to Quality Control of Drop-on-Demand Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) Printing

by Yahya Tawhari, Charchit Shukla and Juan Ren

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1376; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111376 - 14 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1565

Abstract

Droplet quality in drop-on-demand (DoD) Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) inkjet printing plays a crucial role in influencing the overall performance and manufacturing quality of the operation. The current approach to droplet printing analysis involves manually outlining/labeling the printed dots on the substrate under a microscope [...] Read more.

Droplet quality in drop-on-demand (DoD) Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) inkjet printing plays a crucial role in influencing the overall performance and manufacturing quality of the operation. The current approach to droplet printing analysis involves manually outlining/labeling the printed dots on the substrate under a microscope and then using microscope software to estimate the dot sizes by assuming the dots have a standard circular shape. Therefore, it is prone to errors. Moreover, the dot spacing information is missing, which is also important for EHD DoD printing processes, such as manufacturing micro-arrays. In order to address these issues, the paper explores the application of feature extraction methods aimed at identifying characteristics of the printed droplets to enhance the detection, evaluation, and delineation of significant structures and edges in printed images. The proposed method involves three main stages: (1) image pre-processing, where edge detection techniques such as Canny filtering are applied for printed dot boundary detection; (2) contour detection, which is used to accurately quantify the dot sizes (such as dot perimeter and area); and (3) centroid detection and distance calculation, where the spacing between neighboring dots is quantified as the Euclidean distance of the dot geometric centers. These stages collectively improve the precision and efficiency of EHD DoD printing analysis in terms of dot size and spacing. Edge and contour detection strategies are implemented to minimize edge discrepancies and accurately delineate droplet perimeters for quality analysis, enhancing measurement precision. The proposed image processing approach was first tested using simulated EHD printed droplet arrays with specified dot sizes and spacing, and the achieved quantification accuracy was over 98% in analyzing dot size and spacing, highlighting the high precision of the proposed approach. This approach was further demonstrated through dot analysis of experimentally EHD-printed droplets, showing its superiority over conventional microscope-based measurements. Full article

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9 pages, 4045 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Laterally Excited Bulk Acoustic Wave Resonator Based on LiNbO₃ with Arc-Shaped Electrodes

by Jieyu Liu, Wenjuan Liu, Zhiwei Wen, Min Zeng and Chengliang Sun

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1367; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111367 - 12 Nov 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2744

Abstract

High frequency and large bandwidth are growing trends in communication radio-frequency devices. The LiNbO₃ thin film material is expected to become the preferred piezoelectric material for high coupling resonators in the 5G frequency band due to its ultra-high piezoelectric coefficient and low [...] Read more.

High frequency and large bandwidth are growing trends in communication radio-frequency devices. The LiNbO₃ thin film material is expected to become the preferred piezoelectric material for high coupling resonators in the 5G frequency band due to its ultra-high piezoelectric coefficient and low loss characteristics. The main mode of laterally excited bulk acoustic wave resonators (XBAR) have an ultra-high sound velocity, which enables high-frequency applications. However, the interference of spurious modes is one of the main reasons hindering the widespread application of XBAR. In this paper, a Z-cut LiNbO₃ thin film-based XBAR with arc-shaped electrodes is presented. We investigate the electric field distribution of the XBAR, while the irregular boundary of the arc-shaped electrodes affects the electric field between the existing interdigital transducers (IDTs). The mode shapes and impedance response of the XBAR with arc-shaped electrodes and the XBARs with traditional IDTs are compared in this work. The fabricated XBAR on a 350 nm Z-cut LiNbO₃ thin film with arc-shaped electrodes operating at over 5 GHz achieves a high effective electromechanical coupling coefficient of 29.8% and the spurious modes are well suppressed. This work promotes an XBAR with an optimized electrode design to further achieve the desired performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Piezoelectric Devices and System in Micromachines)

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26 pages, 6673 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Neural Network Methods in the Development of MEMS Sensors

by Yan Liu, Mingda Ping, Jizhou Han, Xiang Cheng, Hongbo Qin and Weidong Wang

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1368; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111368 - 12 Nov 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5387

Abstract

As a kind of long-term favorable device, the microelectromechanical system (MEMS) sensor has become a powerful dominator in the detection applications of commercial and industrial areas. There have been a series of mature solutions to address the possible issues in device design, optimization, [...] Read more.

As a kind of long-term favorable device, the microelectromechanical system (MEMS) sensor has become a powerful dominator in the detection applications of commercial and industrial areas. There have been a series of mature solutions to address the possible issues in device design, optimization, fabrication, and output processing. The recent involvement of neural networks (NNs) has provided a new paradigm for the development of MEMS sensors and greatly accelerated the research cycle of high-performance devices. In this paper, we present an overview of the progress, applications, and prospects of NN methods in the development of MEMS sensors. The superiority of leveraging NN methods in structural design, device fabrication, and output compensation/calibration is reviewed and discussed to illustrate how NNs have reformed the development of MEMS sensors. Relevant issues in the usage of NNs, such as available models, dataset construction, and parameter optimization, are presented. Many application scenarios have demonstrated that NN methods can enhance the speed of predicting device performance, rapidly generate device-on-demand solutions, and establish more accurate calibration and compensation models. Along with the improvement in research efficiency, there are also several critical challenges that need further exploration in this area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue MEMS/NEMS Sensors and Actuators, 2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 4110 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Silicon Microthermocycler for Point-of-Care Analytical Systems: Modeling, Design, and Fabrication

by Borut Pečar, Aljaž Zadravec, Danilo Vrtačnik and Matej Možek

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1325; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111325 - 30 Oct 2024

Viewed by 2834

Abstract

A four-tether silicon microthermocycler for point-of-care PCR analytical systems is proposed. Substituting the commonly employed platinum with titanium in the fabrication of thin film resistance temperature detectors and heaters enabled the realization of a smaller device without compromising temperature accuracy or increasing heater [...] Read more.

A four-tether silicon microthermocycler for point-of-care PCR analytical systems is proposed. Substituting the commonly employed platinum with titanium in the fabrication of thin film resistance temperature detectors and heaters enabled the realization of a smaller device without compromising temperature accuracy or increasing heater lead power losses. The device was extensively analyzed through analytical modeling and FEM numerical simulations using a 3-D thermo-mechanical simulation model in COMSOL. Numerical simulations revealed that the four-tether design provides a 460% improvement in mechanical strength and a 57% reduction in the thermal time constant compared with a similar three-tether design, with a trade-off of a 22% increase in heat losses. Detailed structural and thermal analyses of crucial design parameters guided the optimization of the final geometry, leading to the successful fabrication of prototypes. It was shown that the current of 60 mA was sufficient to heat the fabricated solid and hollow silicon structure to 132 °C and 134 °C in 10 s for an applied heater power of 510 mW and 525 mW, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Application of Micro-Devices/Sensors in Analytical Chemistry)

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15 pages, 2370 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Design and Optimization of a Fan-Out Wafer-Level Packaging- Based Integrated Passive Device Structure for FMCW Radar Applications

by Jiajie Yang, Lixin Xu and Ke Yang

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1311; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111311 - 29 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2535

Abstract

This paper presents an integrated passive device (IPD) structure based on fan-out wafer-level packaging (FOWLP) for the front end of frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar systems, focusing on enhancing the integration efficiency and performance of large passive components like antennas. Additionally, a new [...] Read more.

This paper presents an integrated passive device (IPD) structure based on fan-out wafer-level packaging (FOWLP) for the front end of frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar systems, focusing on enhancing the integration efficiency and performance of large passive components like antennas. Additionally, a new metric is introduced to assess this structure’s effect on the average noise figure in FMCW systems. Using this metric as a loss function, we apply the support vector machine (SVM) for electromagnetic simulation and the genetic algorithm (GA) for optimization. The sample fitting variance is 2.42 dB, reducing computation time from 12 min to under 1 millisecond, with the entire optimization completed in less than 100 s. The optimized IPD structure is 0.7 × 0.9 × 0.014

{λ_{0}}^{3}

in size and achieves over 35 dB isolation between the transmitter and receiver. Compared to the IPD model calculated by empirical formulas, the optimized device lowers the average noise figure by 15.2 dB and increases maximum gain by 4.19 dB. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Packaging for Microsystem Applications, 3rd Edition)

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16 pages, 7786 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Recent Advances of PDMS In Vitro Biomodels for Flow Visualizations and Measurements: From Macro to Nanoscale Applications

by Andrews Souza, Glauco Nobrega, Lucas B. Neves, Filipe Barbosa, João Ribeiro, Conrado Ferrera and Rui A. Lima

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1317; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111317 - 29 Oct 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4075

Abstract

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) has become a popular material in microfluidic and macroscale in vitro models due to its elastomeric properties and versatility. PDMS-based biomodels are widely used in blood flow studies, offering a platform for improving flow models and validating numerical simulations. This review [...] Read more.

Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) has become a popular material in microfluidic and macroscale in vitro models due to its elastomeric properties and versatility. PDMS-based biomodels are widely used in blood flow studies, offering a platform for improving flow models and validating numerical simulations. This review highlights recent advances in bioflow studies conducted using both PDMS microfluidic devices and macroscale biomodels, particularly in replicating physiological environments. PDMS microchannels are used in studies of blood cell deformation under confined conditions, demonstrating the potential to distinguish between healthy and diseased cells. PDMS also plays a critical role in fabricating arterial models from real medical images, including pathological conditions such as aneurysms. Cutting-edge applications, such as nanofluid hemodynamic studies and nanoparticle drug delivery in organ-on-a-chip platforms, represent the latest developments in PDMS research. In addition to these applications, this review critically discusses PDMS properties, fabrication methods, and its expanding role in micro- and nanoscale flow studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 15th Anniversary of Micromachines)

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26 pages, 3502 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Development of a Low-Cost Sensor System for Accurate Soil Assessment and Biological Activity Profiling

by Antonio Ruiz-Gonzalez, Harriet Kempson and Jim Haseloff

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111293 - 24 Oct 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5907

Abstract

The development of low-cost tools for rapid soil assessment has become a crucial field due to the increasing demands in food production and carbon storage. However, current methods for soil evaluation are costly and cannot provide enough information about the quality of samples. [...] Read more.

The development of low-cost tools for rapid soil assessment has become a crucial field due to the increasing demands in food production and carbon storage. However, current methods for soil evaluation are costly and cannot provide enough information about the quality of samples. This work reports for the first time a low-cost 3D printed device that can be used for soil classification as well as the study of biological activity. The system incorporated multiple physical and gas sensors for the characterisation of sample types and profiling of soil volatilome. Sensing data were obtained from 31 variables, including 18 individual light wavelengths that could be used to determine seed germination rates of tomato plants. A machine learning algorithm was trained using the data obtained by characterising 75 different soil samples. The algorithm could predict seed germination rates with high accuracy (RSMLE = 0.01, and R² = 0.99), enabling an objective and non-invasive study of the impact of multiple environmental parameters in soil quality. To allow for a more complete profiling of soil biological activity, molecular imprinted-based fine particles were designed to quantify tryptophol, a quorum-sensing signalling molecule commonly used by fungal populations. This device could quantify the concentration of tryptophol down to 10 nM, offering the possibility of studying the interactions between fungi and bacterial populations. The final device could monitor the growth of microbial populations in soil, and offering an accurate assessment of quality at a low cost, impacting germination rates by incorporating hybrid data from the microsensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biosensors for Biomedical and Environmental Applications, Third Edition)

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17 pages, 7556 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Laterally Actuated Si-to-Si DC MEMS Switch for Power Switching Applications

by Abdurrashid Hassan Shuaibu, Almur A. S. Rabih, Yves Blaquière and Frederic Nabki

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1295; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111295 - 24 Oct 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4075

Abstract

Electrothermal actuators are highly advantageous for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) due to their capability to generate significant force and large displacements. Despite these benefits, their application in reconfigurable conduction line switches is limited, particularly when employing commercial processes. In DC MEMS switches, electrothermal actuators [...] Read more.

Electrothermal actuators are highly advantageous for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) due to their capability to generate significant force and large displacements. Despite these benefits, their application in reconfigurable conduction line switches is limited, particularly when employing commercial processes. In DC MEMS switches, electrothermal actuators require electrical insulation between the biasing voltage and the transmission line to prevent interference and maintain the integrity of the switch. This work presents a chevron-type electrothermal actuator utilizing a stack of

S i O_{2} /

Al thin films on a silicon (Si) structural layer beam to create a DC MEMS switch. The design leverages a thin film Al heater to drive the actuator while the

S i O_{2}

layer provides electrical insulation, suppressing crosstalk with the Si layer. The electrical contact resistance of a Si-to-Si interface was evaluated by applying a controlled current and measuring the resultant voltage. A low contact resistance of 150 Ω was achieved when an initial contact gap of 2.52 μm was closed using an actuator with an actuation voltage of 1.2 V and a current of 205 mA, with a switching speed of less than 5 ms. Factors such as the contact force, the temperature, and the residual device layer etching angle significantly impact the Si-to-Si contact resistance and the switch’s longevity. The switch withstands a breakdown voltage up to 350 V at its terminal contacts. Thus, it will be robust to self-actuation caused by unwanted voltage contributions, making it suitable for high-voltage and harsh environment applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue MEMS/NEMS Devices and Applications, 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 7197 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Wireless Bi-Directional Brain–Computer Interface Supporting Both Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Transmission

by Wei Ji, Haoyang Su, Shuang Jin, Ye Tian, Gen Li, Yingkang Yang, Jiazhi Li, Zhitao Zhou, Xiaoling Wei, Tiger H. Tao, Lunming Qin, Yifei Ye and Liuyang Sun

Micromachines 2024, 15(11), 1283; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15111283 - 22 Oct 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6492

Abstract

Wireless neural signal transmission is essential for both neuroscience research and neural disorder therapies. However, conventional wireless systems are often constrained by low sampling rates, limited channel counts, and their support of only a single transmission mode. Here, we developed a wireless bi-directional [...] Read more.

Wireless neural signal transmission is essential for both neuroscience research and neural disorder therapies. However, conventional wireless systems are often constrained by low sampling rates, limited channel counts, and their support of only a single transmission mode. Here, we developed a wireless bi-directional brain–computer interface system featuring dual transmission modes. This system supports both low-power Bluetooth transmission and high-sampling-rate Wi-Fi transmission, providing flexibility for various application scenarios. The Bluetooth mode, with a maximum sampling rate of 14.4 kS/s, is well suited for detecting low-frequency signals, as demonstrated by both in vitro recordings of signals from 10 to 50 Hz and in vivo recordings of 16-channel local field potentials in mice. More importantly, the Wi-Fi mode, offering a maximum sampling rate of 56.8 kS/s, is optimized for recording high-frequency signals. This capability was validated through in vitro recordings of signals from 500 to 2000 Hz and in vivo recordings of single-neuron spike firings with amplitudes reaching hundreds of microvolts and high signal-to-noise ratios. Additionally, the system incorporates a wireless stimulation function capable of delivering current pulses up to 2.55 mA, with adjustable pulse width and polarity. Overall, this dual-mode system provides an efficient and flexible solution for both neural recording and stimulation applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neural Interface: From Material to System)

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33 pages, 22149 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

MEMS Micromirror Actuation Techniques: A Comprehensive Review of Trends, Innovations, and Future Prospects

by Mansoor Ahmad, Mohamed Bahri and Mohamad Sawan

Micromachines 2024, 15(10), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15101233 - 30 Sep 2024

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6393

Abstract

Micromirrors have recently emerged as an essential component in optical scanning technology, attracting considerable attention from researchers. Their compact size and versatile capabilities, such as light steering, modulation, and switching, are leading them as potential alternatives to traditional bulky galvanometer scanners. The actuation [...] Read more.

Micromirrors have recently emerged as an essential component in optical scanning technology, attracting considerable attention from researchers. Their compact size and versatile capabilities, such as light steering, modulation, and switching, are leading them as potential alternatives to traditional bulky galvanometer scanners. The actuation of these mirrors is critical in determining their performance, as it contributes to factors such as response time, scanning angle, and power consumption. This article aims to provide a thorough exploration of the actuation techniques used to drive micromirrors, describing the fundamental operating principles. The four primary actuation modalities—electrostatic, electrothermal, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric—are thoroughly investigated. Each type of actuator’s operational principles, key advantages, and their limitations are discussed. Additionally, the discussion extends to hybrid micromirror designs that combine two types of actuation in a single device. A total of 208 closely related papers indexed in Web of Science were reviewed. The findings indicate ongoing advancements in the field, particularly in terms of size, controllability, and field of view, making micromirrors ideal candidates for applications in medical imaging, display projections, and optical communication. With a comprehensive overview of micromirror actuation strategies, this manuscript serves as a compelling resource for researchers and engineers aiming to utilize the appropriate type of micromirror in the field of optical scanning technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Optical MEMS: Design, Fabrication, Control, Modeling and Developments)

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12 pages, 2389 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Scan-Rate-Dependent Ion Current Rectification in Bipolar Interfacial Nanopores

by Xiaoling Zhang, Yunjiao Wang, Jiahui Zheng, Chen Yang and Deqiang Wang

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1176; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091176 - 23 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1816

Abstract

This study presents a theoretical investigation into the voltammetric behavior of bipolar interfacial nanopores due to the effect of potential scan rate (1–1000 V/s). Finite element method (FEM) is utilized to explore the current–voltage (I–V) properties of bipolar interfacial nanopores at different bulk [...] Read more.

This study presents a theoretical investigation into the voltammetric behavior of bipolar interfacial nanopores due to the effect of potential scan rate (1–1000 V/s). Finite element method (FEM) is utilized to explore the current–voltage (I–V) properties of bipolar interfacial nanopores at different bulk salt concentrations. The results demonstrate a strong impact of the scan rate on the I–V response of bipolar interfacial nanopores, particularly at relatively low concentrations. Hysteresis loops are observed in bipolar interfacial nanopores under specific scan rates and potential ranges and divided by a cross-point potential that remains unaffected by the scan rate employed. This indicates that the current in bipolar interfacial nanopores is not just reliant on the bias potential that is imposed but also on the previous conditions within the nanopore, exhibiting history-dependent or memory effects. This scan-rate-dependent current–voltage response is found to be significantly influenced by the length of the nanopore (membrane thickness). Thicker membranes exhibit a more pronounced scan-rate-dependent phenomenon, as the mass transfer of ionic species is slower relative to the potential scan rate. Additionally, unlike conventional bipolar nanopores, the ion current passing through bipolar interfacial nanopores is minimally affected by the membrane thickness, making it easier to detect. Full article

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20 pages, 7194 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Deep Learning-Driven Prediction of Mechanical Properties of 316L Stainless Steel Metallographic by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Zhizhou Zhang, Paul Mativenga, Wenhua Zhang and Shi-qing Huang

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1167; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091167 - 21 Sep 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3651

Abstract

This study developed a new metallography–property relationship neural network (MPR-Net) to predict the relationship between the microstructure and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel built by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). The accuracy R² of MPR-Net was 0.96 and 0.91 for tensile [...] Read more.

This study developed a new metallography–property relationship neural network (MPR-Net) to predict the relationship between the microstructure and mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel built by laser powder bed fusion (LPBF). The accuracy R² of MPR-Net was 0.96 and 0.91 for tensile strength and Vickers hardness predictions, respectively, based on optical metallurgy images. Feature visualisation methods, such as gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) and clustering, were employed to interpret the abstract features within the MPR-Net, providing insights into the molten pool morphology and grain formation mechanisms during the LPBF process. Experimental results showed that the optimal process parameters—190 W laser power and 700 mm/s scanning speed—yielded a maximum tensile strength of 762.83 MPa and a Vickers hardness of 253.07 HV_0.2 with nearly full densification (99.97%). The study marks the first application of a convolutional neural network (MPR-Net) to predict the mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel samples manufactured through laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) based on metallography. It innovatively employs techniques such as gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM), spatial coherence testing, and clustering to provide deeper insights into the workings of the machine learning model, enhancing the interpretability of complex neural network decisions in material science. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Laser Material Processing)

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10 pages, 1639 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

One-Step Dry-Etching Fabrication of Tunable Two-Hierarchical Nanostructures

by Xu Ji, Bo Wang, Zhongshan Zhang, Yuan Xiang, Haifang Yang, Ruhao Pan and Junjie Li

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1160; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091160 - 17 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1947

Abstract

Two-hierarchical nanostructures, characterized by two distinct configurations along the height direction, exhibit immense potential for applications in various fields due to their significantly enhanced controllable degree compared to single-order structures. However, due to the limitations imposed by planar technology, the realization of two-hierarchical [...] Read more.

Two-hierarchical nanostructures, characterized by two distinct configurations along the height direction, exhibit immense potential for applications in various fields due to their significantly enhanced controllable degree compared to single-order structures. However, due to the limitations imposed by planar technology, the realization of two-hierarchical nanostructures encounters huge challenges. In this work, we developed a one-step etching method based on inductively coupled plasma reactive ion etching for two-hierarchical nanostructures. Thanks to the shrinking effect of the Cr mask and the generation of a passivation layer during etching, the target materials experienced two different states from vertical etching to shrink etching. Consequently, the achieved two-hierarchical nanostructure configuration features a cross-section of an upper triangle and a lower rectangle, showing higher controllable degrees compared to the one-order ones. Both the mask pattern and etching parameters play crucial roles, by which two-hierarchical structures with diversiform shapes can be constructed controllably. This method for two-hierarchical nanostructures offers advantages including excellent control over structural properties, high processing efficiency, uniformity across large areas, and universality in materials. This developed strategy not only presents a simple and rapid nanofabrication platform for realizing optoelectronic devices, but also provides innovative ideas for designing the next generation of high-performance devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 15th Anniversary of Micromachines)

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15 pages, 7305 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Contact Hole Shrinkage: Simulation Study of Resist Flow Process and Its Application to Block Copolymers

by Sang-Kon Kim

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1151; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091151 - 13 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5005

Abstract

For vertical interconnect access (VIA) in three-dimensional (3D) structure chips, including those with high bandwidth memory (HBM), shrinking contact holes (C/Hs) using the resist flow process (RFP) represents the most promising technology for low- [...] Read more.

For vertical interconnect access (VIA) in three-dimensional (3D) structure chips, including those with high bandwidth memory (HBM), shrinking contact holes (C/Hs) using the resist flow process (RFP) represents the most promising technology for low-

k_{1} (w h e r e C D = k_{1} λ / N A,

C D

is the critical dimension,

λ

is wavelength, and

N A

is the numerical aperture). This method offers a way to reduce dimensions without additional complex process steps and is independent of optical technologies. However, most empirical models are heuristic methods and use linear regression to predict the critical dimension of the reflowed structure but do not account for intermediate shapes. In this research, the resist flow process (RFP) was modeled using the evolution method, the finite-element method, machine learning, and deep learning under various reflow conditions to imitate experimental results. Deep learning and machine learning have proven to be useful for physical optimization problems without analytical solutions, particularly for regression and classification tasks. In this application, the self-assembly of cylinder-forming block copolymers (BCPs), confined in prepatterns of the resist reflow process (RFP) to produce small contact hole (C/H) dimensions, was described using the self-consistent field theory (SCFT). This research paves the way for the shrink modeling of the enhanced resist reflow process (RFP) for random contact holes (C/Hs) and the production of smaller contact holes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Micro/Nano-Fabrication)

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13 pages, 4456 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Preparation of High-Performance Transparent Al₂O₃ Dielectric Films via Self-Exothermic Reaction Based on Solution Method and Applications

by Xuecong Fang, Honglong Ning, Zihan Zhang, Rihui Yao, Yucheng Huang, Yonglin Yang, Weixin Cheng, Shaojie Jin, Dongxiang Luo and Junbiao Peng

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1140; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091140 - 11 Sep 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2251

Abstract

As the competition intensifies in enhancing the integration and performance of integrated circuits, in accordance with the famous Moore’s Law, higher performance and smaller size requirements are imposed on the dielectric layers in electronic devices. Compared to vacuum methods, the production cost of [...] Read more.

As the competition intensifies in enhancing the integration and performance of integrated circuits, in accordance with the famous Moore’s Law, higher performance and smaller size requirements are imposed on the dielectric layers in electronic devices. Compared to vacuum methods, the production cost of preparing dielectric layers via solution methods is lower, and the preparation cycle is shorter. This paper utilizes a low-temperature self-exothermic reaction based on the solution method to prepare high-performance Al₂O₃ dielectric thin films that are compatible with flexible substrates. In this paper, we first established two non-self-exothermic systems: one with pure aluminum nitrate and one with pure aluminum acetylacetonate. Additionally, we set up one self-exothermic system where aluminum nitrate and aluminum acetylacetonate were mixed in a 1:1 ratio. Tests revealed that the leakage current density and dielectric constant of the self-exothermic system devices were significantly optimized compared to the two non-self-exothermic system devices, indicating that the self-exothermic reaction can effectively improve the quality of the dielectric film. This paper further established two self-exothermic systems with aluminum nitrate and aluminum acetylacetonate mixed in 2:1 and 1:2 ratios, respectively, for comparison. The results indicate that as the proportion of aluminum nitrate increases, the overall dielectric performance of the devices improves. The best overall performance occurs when aluminum nitrate and aluminum acetylacetonate are mixed in a ratio of 2:1: The film surface is smooth without cracks; the surface roughness is 0.747 ± 0.045 nm; the visible light transmittance reaches up to 98%; on the basis of this film, MIM devices were fabricated, with tested leakage current density as low as 1.08 × 10⁻⁸ A/cm² @1 MV and a relative dielectric constant as high as 8.61 ± 0.06, demonstrating excellent electrical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thin Film Microelectronic Devices and Circuits)

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35 pages, 48192 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Lab-on-Chip Systems for Cell Sorting: Main Features and Advantages of Inertial Focusing in Spiral Microchannels

by Isabella Petruzzellis, Rebeca Martínez Vázquez, Stefania Caragnano, Caterina Gaudiuso, Roberto Osellame, Antonio Ancona and Annalisa Volpe

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1135; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091135 - 6 Sep 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7891

Abstract

Inertial focusing-based Lab-on-Chip systems represent a promising technology for cell sorting in various applications, thanks to their alignment with the ASSURED criteria recommended by the World Health Organization: Affordable, Sensitive, Specific, User-friendly, Rapid and Robust, Equipment-free, and Delivered. Inertial focusing techniques using spiral [...] Read more.

Inertial focusing-based Lab-on-Chip systems represent a promising technology for cell sorting in various applications, thanks to their alignment with the ASSURED criteria recommended by the World Health Organization: Affordable, Sensitive, Specific, User-friendly, Rapid and Robust, Equipment-free, and Delivered. Inertial focusing techniques using spiral microchannels offer a rapid, portable, and easy-to-prototype solution for cell sorting. Various microfluidic devices have been investigated in the literature to understand how hydrodynamic forces influence particle focusing in spiral microchannels. This is crucial for the effective prototyping of devices that allow for high-throughput and efficient filtration of particles of different sizes. However, a clear, comprehensive, and organized overview of current research in this area is lacking. This review aims to fill this gap by offering a thorough summary of the existing literature, thereby guiding future experimentation and facilitating the selection of spiral geometries and materials for cell sorting in microchannels. To this end, we begin with a detailed theoretical introduction to the physical mechanisms underlying particle separation in spiral microfluidic channels. We also dedicate a section to the materials and prototyping techniques most commonly used for spiral microchannels, highlighting and discussing their respective advantages and disadvantages. Subsequently, we provide a critical examination of the key details of inertial focusing across various cross-sections (rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, hybrid) in spiral devices as reported in the literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bioinspired Interface and Fluid Manipulation: From Fundamentals to Applications)

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14 pages, 7528 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fine-Tuning of Optical Resonance Wavelength of Surface-Micromachined Optical Ultrasound Transducer Arrays for Single-Wavelength Light Source Readout

by Zhiyu Yan, Cheng Fang and Jun Zou

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1111; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091111 - 31 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2656

Abstract

This article reports the fine-tuning of the optical resonance wavelength (ORW) of surface-micromachined optical ultrasound transducer (SMOUT) arrays to enable ultrasound data readout with non-tunable interrogation light sources for photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT). Permanent ORW tuning is achieved by material deposition onto or [...] Read more.

This article reports the fine-tuning of the optical resonance wavelength (ORW) of surface-micromachined optical ultrasound transducer (SMOUT) arrays to enable ultrasound data readout with non-tunable interrogation light sources for photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT). Permanent ORW tuning is achieved by material deposition onto or subtraction from the top diaphragm of each element with sub-nanometer resolution. For demonstration, a SMOUT array is first fabricated, and its ORW is tuned for readout with an 808 nm laser diode (LD). Experiments are conducted to characterize the optical and acoustic performances of the elements within the center region of the SMOUT array. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional PACT (photoacoustic computed tomography) is also performed to evaluate the imaging performance of the ORW-tuned SMOUT array. The results show that the ORW tuning does not degrade the optical, acoustic, and overall imaging performances of the SMOUT elements. As a result, the fine-tuning method enables new SMOUT-based PACT systems that are low cost, compact, powerful, and even higher speed, with parallel readout capability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photoacoustic-Based Sensing Systems: Advances, Applications, and Innovative Measurement Strategies)

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12 pages, 5444 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrical Properties and Reliability of AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor under RF Overdrive Stress at High Temperature

by Chang Liu, Yiqiang Chen, Yuhan Xie, Hongxia Liu and Zongqi Cai

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1100; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091100 - 30 Aug 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2308

Abstract

We have investigated the electrical properties and reliability of AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) under high-temperature RF overdrive stress. The experimental results show that the drain current and transconductance of the device decrease at 25 °C and 55 °C but do not [...] Read more.

We have investigated the electrical properties and reliability of AlGaN/GaN high electron mobility transistors (HEMT) under high-temperature RF overdrive stress. The experimental results show that the drain current and transconductance of the device decrease at 25 °C and 55 °C but do not change significantly at 85 °C before and after the stress. The decline rate of the saturation drain current, the degradation amplitude of transconductance, and the drift amplitude of threshold voltage decrease with the increase in temperature. The results of pulse I–V and low-frequency noise tests show that the current collapse is inhibited, and the trap density is reduced at higher temperatures. The Electroluminescence (EL) test shows that the luminescence characteristics of the device after RF overdrive stress are more scattered and weaker. We believe that the degradation at lower temperatures is mainly due to the influence of the hot electron effect (HEE), while the change in electrical properties at higher temperatures is due to the weakening of HEE and the improvement of the Schottky interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section D1: Semiconductor Devices)

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30 pages, 13622 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Key Technologies in Developing Chip-Scale Hot Atomic Devices for Precision Quantum Metrology

by Huiyao Yu, Xuyuan Zhang, Jian Zhang, Zhendong Wu, Long Jiao, Kan Li and Wenqiang Zheng

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1095; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091095 - 29 Aug 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3489

Abstract

Chip-scale devices harnessing the interaction between hot atomic ensembles and light are pushing the boundaries of precision measurement techniques into unprecedented territory. These advancements enable the realization of super-sensitive, miniaturized sensing instruments for measuring various physical parameters. The evolution of this field is [...] Read more.

Chip-scale devices harnessing the interaction between hot atomic ensembles and light are pushing the boundaries of precision measurement techniques into unprecedented territory. These advancements enable the realization of super-sensitive, miniaturized sensing instruments for measuring various physical parameters. The evolution of this field is propelled by a suite of sophisticated components, including miniaturized single-mode lasers, microfabricated alkali atom vapor cells, compact coil systems, scaled-down heating systems, and the application of cutting-edge micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) technologies. This review delves into the essential technologies needed to develop chip-scale hot atomic devices for quantum metrology, providing a comparative analysis of each technology’s features. Concluding with a forward-looking perspective, this review discusses the future potential of chip-scale hot atomic devices and the critical technologies that will drive their advancement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Quantum Optical Devices and Their Applications)

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12 pages, 14542 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceCommunication

Offsetting Dense Particle Sedimentation in Microfluidic Systems

by Tochukwu Dubem Anyaduba and Jesus Rodriguez-Manzano

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091063 - 23 Aug 2024

Viewed by 4975

Abstract

Sedimentation is an undesirable phenomenon that complicates the design of microsystems that exploit dense microparticles as delivery tools, especially in biotechnological applications. It often informs the integration of continuous mixing modules, consequently impacting the system footprint, cost, and complexity. The impact of sedimentation [...] Read more.

Sedimentation is an undesirable phenomenon that complicates the design of microsystems that exploit dense microparticles as delivery tools, especially in biotechnological applications. It often informs the integration of continuous mixing modules, consequently impacting the system footprint, cost, and complexity. The impact of sedimentation is significantly worse in systems designed with the intent of particle metering or binary encapsulation in droplets. Circumventing this problem involves the unsatisfactory adoption of gel microparticles as an alternative. This paper presents two solutions—a hydrodynamic solution that changes the particle sedimentation trajectory relative to a flow-rate dependent resultant force, and induced hindered settling (i-HS), which exploits Richardson–Zaki (RZ) corrections of Stokes’ law. The hydrodynamic solution was validated using a multi-well fluidic multiplexing and particle metering manifold. Computational image analysis of multiplex metering efficiency using this method showed an average reduction in well-to-well variation in particle concentration from 45% (Q = 1 mL/min, n = 32 total wells) to 17% (Q = 10 mL/min, n = 48 total wells). By exploiting a physical property (cloud point) of surfactants in the bead suspension in vials, the i-HS achieved a 58% reduction in the sedimentation rate. This effect results from the surfactant phase change, which increases the turbidity (transient increase in particle concentration), thereby exploiting the RZ theories. Both methods can be used independently or synergistically to eliminate bead settling in microsystems or to minimize particle sedimentation Full article

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21 pages, 3257 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Democratizing Microreactor Technology for Accelerated Discoveries in Chemistry and Materials Research

by Tomomi Sato, Koji Masuda, Chikako Sano, Keiji Matsumoto, Hidetoshi Numata, Seiji Munetoh, Toshihiro Kasama and Ryo Miyake

Micromachines 2024, 15(9), 1064; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091064 - 23 Aug 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5988

Abstract

Microreactor technologies have emerged as versatile platforms with the potential to revolutionize chemistry and materials research, offering sustainable solutions to global challenges in environmental and health domains. This survey paper provides an in-depth review of recent advancements in microreactor technologies, focusing on their [...] Read more.

Microreactor technologies have emerged as versatile platforms with the potential to revolutionize chemistry and materials research, offering sustainable solutions to global challenges in environmental and health domains. This survey paper provides an in-depth review of recent advancements in microreactor technologies, focusing on their role in facilitating accelerated discoveries in chemistry and materials. Specifically, we examine the convergence of microfluidics with machine intelligence and automation, enabling the exploitation of the cyber-physical environment as a highly integrated experimentation platform for rapid scientific discovery and process development. We investigate the applicability and limitations of microreactor-enabled discovery accelerators in various chemistry and materials contexts. Despite their tremendous potential, the integration of machine intelligence and automation into microreactor-based experiments presents challenges in establishing fully integrated, automated, and intelligent systems. These challenges can hinder the broader adoption of microreactor technologies within the research community. To address this, we review emerging technologies that can help lower barriers and facilitate the implementation of microreactor-enabled discovery accelerators. Lastly, we provide our perspective on future research directions for democratizing microreactor technologies, with the aim of accelerating scientific discoveries and promoting widespread adoption of these transformative platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section C：Chemistry)

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13 pages, 31150 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Innovative Integration of Dual Quantum Cascade Lasers on Silicon Photonics Platform

by Dongbo Wang, Harindra Kumar Kannojia, Pierre Jouy, Etienne Giraud, Kaspar Suter, Richard Maulini, David Gachet, Léo Hetier, Geert Van Steenberge and Bart Kuyken

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 1055; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15081055 - 22 Aug 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6323

Abstract

For the first time, we demonstrate the hybrid integration of dual distributed feedback (DFB) quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) on a silicon photonics platform using an innovative 3D self-aligned flip-chip assembly process. The QCL waveguide geometry was predesigned with alignment fiducials, enabling a sub-micron [...] Read more.

For the first time, we demonstrate the hybrid integration of dual distributed feedback (DFB) quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) on a silicon photonics platform using an innovative 3D self-aligned flip-chip assembly process. The QCL waveguide geometry was predesigned with alignment fiducials, enabling a sub-micron accuracy during assembly. Laser oscillation was observed at the designed wavelength of 7.2 μm, with a threshold current of 170 mA at room temperature under pulsed mode operation. The optical output power after an on-chip beam combiner reached sub-milliwatt levels under stable continuous wave operation at 15 °C. The specific packaging design miniaturized the entire light source by a factor of 100 compared with traditional free-space dual lasers module. Divergence values of 2.88 mrad along the horizontal axis and 1.84 mrad along the vertical axis were measured after packaging. Promisingly, adhering to i-line lithography and reducing the reliance on high-end flip-chip tools significantly lowers the cost per chip. This approach opens new avenues for QCL integration on silicon photonic chips, with significant implications for portable mid-infrared spectroscopy devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 15th Anniversary of Micromachines)

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14 pages, 2639 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Advanced Neural Functional Imaging in C. elegans Using Lab-on-a-Chip Technology

by Youngeun Kwon, Jihye Kim, Ye Bin Son, Sol Ah Lee, Shin Sik Choi and Yongmin Cho

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15081027 - 12 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2722

Abstract

The ability to perceive and adapt to environmental changes is crucial for the survival of all organisms. Neural functional imaging, particularly in model organisms, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, provides valuable insights into how animals sense and process external cues through their nervous [...] Read more.

The ability to perceive and adapt to environmental changes is crucial for the survival of all organisms. Neural functional imaging, particularly in model organisms, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, provides valuable insights into how animals sense and process external cues through their nervous systems. Because of its fully mapped neural anatomy, transparent body, and genetic tractability, C. elegans serves as an ideal model for these studies. This review focuses on advanced methods for neural functional imaging in C. elegans, highlighting calcium imaging techniques, lab-on-a-chip technologies, and their applications in the study of various sensory modalities, including chemosensation, mechanosensation, thermosensation, photosensation, and magnetosensation. We discuss the benefits of these methods in terms of precision, reproducibility, and ability to study dynamic neural processes in real time, ultimately advancing our understanding of the fundamental principles of neural activity and connectivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue μ-TAS: A Themed Issue in Honor of Professor Andreas Manz)

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24 pages, 6506 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Micro-Opto-Electro-Mechanical Systems for High-Precision Displacement Sensing: A Review

by Chenguang Xin, Yingkun Xu, Zhongyao Zhang and Mengwei Li

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 1011; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15081011 - 6 Aug 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3821

Abstract

High-precision displacement sensing has been widely used across both scientific research and industrial applications. The recent interests in developing micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) have given rise to an excellent platform for miniaturized displacement sensors. Advancement in this field during past years is now yielding [...] Read more.

High-precision displacement sensing has been widely used across both scientific research and industrial applications. The recent interests in developing micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) have given rise to an excellent platform for miniaturized displacement sensors. Advancement in this field during past years is now yielding integrated high-precision sensors which show great potential in applications ranging from photoacoustic spectroscopy to high-precision positioning and automation. In this review, we briefly summarize different techniques for high-precision displacement sensing based on MOEMS and discuss the challenges for future improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Realizing Optical Control through Mechatronics Systems)

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20 pages, 2917 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Implementation of Accurate Parameter Identification for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells and Photovoltaic Cells Based on Improved Honey Badger Algorithm

by Wei-Lun Yu, Chen-Kai Wen, En-Jui Liu and Jen-Yuan Chang

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15080998 - 31 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3952

Abstract

Predicting the system efficiency of green energy and developing forward-looking power technologies are key points to accelerating the global energy transition. This research focuses on optimizing the parameters of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and photovoltaic (PV) cells using the honey badger [...] Read more.

Predicting the system efficiency of green energy and developing forward-looking power technologies are key points to accelerating the global energy transition. This research focuses on optimizing the parameters of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and photovoltaic (PV) cells using the honey badger algorithm (HBA), a swarm intelligence algorithm, to accurately present the performance characteristics and efficiency of the systems. Although the HBA has a fast search speed, it was found that the algorithm’s search stability is relatively low. Therefore, this study also enhances the HBA’s global search capability through the rapid iterative characteristics of spiral search. This method will effectively expand the algorithm’s functional search range in a multidimensional and complex solution space. Additionally, the introduction of a sigmoid function will smoothen the algorithm’s exploration and exploitation mechanisms. To test the robustness of the proposed methodology, an extensive test was conducted using the CEC’17 benchmark functions set and real-life applications of PEMFC and PV cells. The results of the aforementioned test proved that with regard to the optimization of PEMFC and PV cell parameters, the improved HBA is significantly advantageous to the original in terms of both solving capability and speed. The results of this research study not only make definite progress in the field of bio-inspired computing but, more importantly, provide a rapid and accurate method for predicting the maximum power point for fuel cells and photovoltaic cells, offering a more efficient and intelligent solution for green energy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 15th Anniversary of Micromachines)

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12 pages, 4809 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Clot Accumulation in 3D Microfluidic Bifurcating Microvasculature Network

by Merav Belenkovich, Ruth Veksler, Yevgeniy Kreinin, Tirosh Mekler, Mariane Flores, Josué Sznitman, Michael Holinstat and Netanel Korin

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15080988 - 31 Jul 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2440

Abstract

The microvasculature, which makes up the majority of the cardiovascular system, plays a crucial role in the process of thrombosis, with the pathological formation of blood clots inside blood vessels. Since blood microflow conditions significantly influence platelet activation and thrombosis, accurately mimicking the [...] Read more.

The microvasculature, which makes up the majority of the cardiovascular system, plays a crucial role in the process of thrombosis, with the pathological formation of blood clots inside blood vessels. Since blood microflow conditions significantly influence platelet activation and thrombosis, accurately mimicking the structure of bifurcating microvascular networks and emulating local physiological blood flow conditions are valuable for understanding blood clot formation. In this work, we present an in vitro model for blood clotting in microvessels, focusing on 3D bifurcations that align with Murray’s law, which guides vascular networks by maintaining a constant wall shear rate throughout. Using these models, we demonstrate that microvascular bifurcations act as sites facilitating thrombus formation compared to straight models. Additionally, by culturing endothelial cells on the luminal surfaces of the models, we show the potential of using our in vitro platforms to recapitulate the initial clotting in diseases involving endothelial dysfunction, such as Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 15th Anniversary of Micromachines)

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24 pages, 1058 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Determination of Arylcyclohexylamines in Biological Specimens: Sensors and Sample Pre-Treatment Approaches

by Rodrigo Pelixo, Mário Barroso, Eugenia Gallardo and Tiago Rosado

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15080984 - 30 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2169

Abstract

Arylcyclohexylamine (ACH) compounds represent a predominant faction within new psychoactive substances. Due to their powerful dissociative effects, they are used in recreational contexts but also in situations of drug-facilitated sexual assault, and therefore, they are a constant target of analysis by forensic experts. [...] Read more.

Arylcyclohexylamine (ACH) compounds represent a predominant faction within new psychoactive substances. Due to their powerful dissociative effects, they are used in recreational contexts but also in situations of drug-facilitated sexual assault, and therefore, they are a constant target of analysis by forensic experts. In recent years, their consumption has been notably high, especially the use of ketamine, presenting daily challenges for laboratories in the determination of this and other ACH analogues. This review comprises the recent strategies that forensic specialists use to identify and quantify ACH compounds in the laboratory with more traditional analytical techniques and technology, and on the point-of-care testing via sensor technology. The study focuses on analogues of phencyclidine (PCP), ketamine, and eticyclidine, highlighting the consistent need for higher sensitivity in the analysis of various samples collected from real cases and simulations of possible matrices. The review also emphasises the ongoing research to develop more sensitive, quicker, and more capable sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploration and Application of Micro-Devices/Sensors in Analytical Chemistry)

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32 pages, 7726 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Droplet Microfluidics for High-Throughput Screening and Directed Evolution of Biomolecules

by Goran T. Vladisavljević

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 971; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15080971 - 29 Jul 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 10656

Abstract

Directed evolution is a powerful technique for creating biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids with tailor-made properties for therapeutic and industrial applications by mimicking the natural evolution processes in the laboratory. Droplet microfluidics improved classical directed evolution by enabling time-consuming and laborious [...] Read more.

Directed evolution is a powerful technique for creating biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids with tailor-made properties for therapeutic and industrial applications by mimicking the natural evolution processes in the laboratory. Droplet microfluidics improved classical directed evolution by enabling time-consuming and laborious steps in this iterative process to be performed within monodispersed droplets in a highly controlled and automated manner. Droplet microfluidic chips can generate, manipulate, and sort individual droplets at kilohertz rates in a user-defined microchannel geometry, allowing new strategies for high-throughput screening and evolution of biomolecules. In this review, we discuss directed evolution studies in which droplet-based microfluidic systems were used to screen and improve the functional properties of biomolecules. We provide a systematic overview of basic on-chip fluidic operations, including reagent mixing by merging continuous fluid streams and droplet pairs, reagent addition by picoinjection, droplet generation, droplet incubation in delay lines, chambers and hydrodynamic traps, and droplet sorting techniques. Various microfluidic strategies for directed evolution using single and multiple emulsions and biomimetic materials (giant lipid vesicles, microgels, and microcapsules) are highlighted. Completely cell-free microfluidic-assisted in vitro compartmentalization methods that eliminate the need to clone DNA into cells after each round of mutagenesis are also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue μ-TAS: A Themed Issue in Honor of Professor Andreas Manz)

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13 pages, 4556 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Switchable Vanadium Dioxide Metasurface for Terahertz Ultra-Broadband Absorption and Reflective Polarization Conversion

by Wei Zou, Changqing Zhong, Lujun Hong, Jiangtao Lei, Yun Shen, Xiaohua Deng, Jing Chen and Tianjing Guo

Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 967; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15080967 - 28 Jul 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3436

Abstract

Based on the unique insulator-metal phase transition property of vanadium dioxide (VO₂), we propose an integrated metasurface with a switchable mechanism between ultra-broadband absorption and polarization conversion, operating in the terahertz (THz) frequency range. The designed metasurface device is constructed using [...] Read more.

Based on the unique insulator-metal phase transition property of vanadium dioxide (VO₂), we propose an integrated metasurface with a switchable mechanism between ultra-broadband absorption and polarization conversion, operating in the terahertz (THz) frequency range. The designed metasurface device is constructed using a stacked structure composed of VO₂ quadruple rings, a dielectric layer, copper stripes, VO₂ film, a dielectric layer, and a copper reflection layer. Our numerical simulations demonstrate that our proposed design, at high temperatures (above 358 K), exhibits an ultra-broadband absorption ranging from 4.95 to 18.39 THz, maintaining an absorptivity greater than 90%, and achieves a relative absorption bandwidth of up to 115%, significantly exceeding previous research records. At room temperature (298 K), leveraging VO₂’s insulating state, our proposed structure transitions into an effective polarization converter, without any alteration to its geometry. It enables efficient conversion between orthogonal linear polarizations across 3.51 to 10.26 THz, with cross-polarized reflection exceeding 90% and a polarization conversion ratio over 97%. More importantly, its relative bandwidth reaches up to 98%. These features highlight its wide-angle, extensive bandwidth, and high-efficiency advantages for both switching functionalities. Such an ultra-broadband convertible design offers potential applications in optical switching, temperature dependent optical sensors, and other tunable THz devices in various fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Terahertz Devices and Applications)

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21 pages, 19988 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Study on Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Double-End Supported Elastic Substrate Prepared by Wet Etching Process

by Ding Song and Wenge Wu

Micromachines 2024, 15(7), 929; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15070929 - 20 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4569

Abstract

Preparing elastic substrates as a carrier for dual-end supported nickel chromium thin film strain sensors is crucial. Wet etching is a vital microfabrication process widely used in producing microelectronic components for various applications. This article combines lithography and wet etching methods to microprocess [...] Read more.

Preparing elastic substrates as a carrier for dual-end supported nickel chromium thin film strain sensors is crucial. Wet etching is a vital microfabrication process widely used in producing microelectronic components for various applications. This article combines lithography and wet etching methods to microprocess the external dimensions and rectangular grooves of 304 stainless steel substrates. The single-factor variable method was used to explore the influence mechanism of FeCl₃, HCl, HNO₃, and temperature on the etching rate, etching factor, and etching surface roughness. The optimal etching parameter combination was summarized: an FeCl₃ concentration of 350 g/L, HCl concentration of 150 mL/L, HNO₃ concentration of 100 mL/L, and temperature of 40 °C. In addition, by comparing the surface morphology, microstructure, and chemical and mechanical properties of a 304 stainless steel substrate before and after etching treatment, it can be seen that the height difference of the substrate surface before and after etching is between 160 μm and −70 μm, which is basically consistent with the initial design of 0.2 mm. The results of an XPS analysis and Raman spectroscopy analysis both indicate that the surface C content increases after etching, and the corrosion resistance of the surface after etching decreases. The nano-hardness after etching increased by 26.4% compared to before, and the ζ value decreased by 7%. The combined XPS and Raman results indicate that the changes in surface mechanical properties of 304 stainless steel substrates after etching are mainly caused by the formation of micro-nanostructures, grain boundary density, and dislocations after wet etching. Compared with the initial rectangular substrate, the strain of the I-shaped substrate after wet etching increased by 3.5–4 times. The results of this study provide the preliminary process parameters for the wet etching of a 304 stainless steel substrate of a strain measuring force sensor and have certain guiding significance for the realization of simple steps and low cost of 304 stainless steel substrate micro-nano-processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanotechnologies: Materials, Manufacturing and Applications)

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12 pages, 3779 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Flexible Temperature Sensor Integrated at Needle Tip for In Situ Acupoint Temperature Monitoring

by Ci Song, Zheng Yu, Weiwen Feng, Ke Sun, Chuanbiao Wen, Shengyan Zhang, Shuguang Yu and Xinxin Li

Micromachines 2024, 15(7), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15070924 - 19 Jul 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4413

Abstract

Temperature can reflect vital activities, and researchers have attempted to guide Chinese medicine diagnosis and treatment by observing acupoint temperature changes. Integrating a temperature sensor at the needle tip enables in situ acupoint temperature measurement. However, the sensor needles for acupoint temperature monitoring [...] Read more.

Temperature can reflect vital activities, and researchers have attempted to guide Chinese medicine diagnosis and treatment by observing acupoint temperature changes. Integrating a temperature sensor at the needle tip enables in situ acupoint temperature measurement. However, the sensor needles for acupoint temperature monitoring designed in previous studies were fabricated by manually soldering thermistor beads and metal wires, making mass production difficult. In this work, using MEMS manufacturing technology, a flexible temperature sensor that can be integrated at the needle tip is proposed and can be mass-produced on silicon wafers. The sensor uses a Pt thermistor as the temperature-sensing element and has a slender flexible structure with dimensions of 125 μm width by 3.2 cm length. As the sensor is inserted into a hollow needle, the Pt thermistor is glued to the needle tip. In the temperature range of 30 °C to 50 °C, the fabricated temperature sensor has a sensitivity of 5.00 Ω∙°C⁻¹, a nonlinearity of ±0.39%FS, and a repeatability error of ±2.62%FS. Additionally, the sensor has been applied to in vivo acupoint temperature monitoring experiments in rats and demonstrated good performance, suggesting its promise for future research on acupoint temperature. Full article

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19 pages, 8806 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Discussion and Demonstration of RF-MEMS Attenuators Design Concepts and Modules for Advanced Beamforming in the Beyond-5G and 6G Scenario—Part 2

by Girolamo Tagliapietra, Flavio Giacomozzi, Massimiliano Michelini, Romolo Marcelli, Giovanni Maria Sardi and Jacopo Iannacci

Micromachines 2024, 15(7), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15070895 - 9 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3925

Abstract

In this paper, different concepts of reconfigurable RF-MEMS attenuators for beamforming applications are proposed and critically assessed. Capitalizing on the previous part of this work, the 1-bit attenuation modules featuring series and shunt resistors and low-voltage membranes (7–9 V) are employed to develop [...] Read more.

In this paper, different concepts of reconfigurable RF-MEMS attenuators for beamforming applications are proposed and critically assessed. Capitalizing on the previous part of this work, the 1-bit attenuation modules featuring series and shunt resistors and low-voltage membranes (7–9 V) are employed to develop a 3-bit attenuator for fine-tuning attenuations (<−10 dB) in the 24.25–27.5 GHz range. More substantial attenuation levels are investigated using fabricated samples of coplanar waveguide (CPW) sections equipped with Pi-shaped resistors aiming at attenuations of −15, −30, and −45 dB. The remarkable electrical features of such configurations, showing flat attenuation curves and limited return losses, and the investigation of a switched-line attenuator design based on them led to the final proposed concept of a low-voltage 24-state attenuator. Such a simulated device combines the Pi-shaped resistors for substantial attenuations with the 3-bit design for fine-tuning operations, showing a maximum attenuation level of nearly −50 dB while maintaining steadily flat attenuation levels and limited return losses (<−11 dB) along the frequency band of interest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future of RF/Microwave Filtering and Memristive Devices in Nowadays Mobile Networks)

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