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Membranes
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Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging
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Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging

A special issue of Membranes (ISSN 2077-0375). This special issue belongs to the section "Membrane Applications".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 February 2023) | Viewed by 45178

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Ismael Marcet

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Research Group TBR, University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
Interests: formulation and characterisation of packaging materials, films and coatings of interest to the food industry

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Around 300 million tons of petroleum-based plastics are produced around the world annually, and these plastics, being non-biodegradable and emitting toxic gasses when they are incinerated, cause an environmental problem on a global scale.

In this regard, the production of novel packaging materials, completely biodegradable and from a renewable source, is an urgent necessity that cannot be delayed for much longer. As a result, the development of films and coatings prepared using biodegradable polymers derived from renewable resources, such as lipids, proteins, polysaccharides, microbial polyesters and polyurethanes, among others, is receiving increasing attention from the research community. In addition, some of these packaging materials have the advantage of being easily tailored in order to bestow them with antimicrobial or antioxidant properties, which makes them of particular interest for food applications.

Therefore, the primary purpose of this Special Issue is to assemble the most relevant contributions in the field of biodegradable films for packaging, particularly considering those materials prepared with tailored properties for specific food-related applications.

Dr. Ismael Marcet
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Membranes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Edible films
  • food packaging
  • biodegradable
  • biopolymers
  • bioplastics
  • composite film
  • antimicrobial
  • antioxidant

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

3 pages, 204 KiB  
Editorial
The Characterization of Biodegradable Films and Food Packaging
by Ismael Marcet
Membranes 2023, 13(10), 826; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13100826 - 08 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1168
Abstract
Every year, approximately 300 million tons of petroleum-based plastics is manufactured worldwide, and these plastics cause significant environmental issues due to their non-biodegradable nature and emission of toxic gases upon incineration [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

18 pages, 4316 KiB  
Article
Nanovesicles as Vanillin Carriers for Antimicrobial Applications
by Verdiana Marchianò, Maria Matos, Miriam López, Shihan Weng, Esther Serrano-Pertierra, Susana Luque, M. Carmen Blanco-López and Gemma Gutiérrez
Membranes 2023, 13(1), 95; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13010095 - 11 Jan 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1744
Abstract
Vanillin is a natural compound easily extracted from plants. It has neuroprotective, anti-carcinogenic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-biofilm properties. It also presents high volatility, high hydrophilicity, and low bioavailability. Nanomaterials can be used to improve pharmacodynamics, solubility, and stability and to enhance pharmacokinetics. In [...] Read more.
Vanillin is a natural compound easily extracted from plants. It has neuroprotective, anti-carcinogenic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-biofilm properties. It also presents high volatility, high hydrophilicity, and low bioavailability. Nanomaterials can be used to improve pharmacodynamics, solubility, and stability and to enhance pharmacokinetics. In this work, non-ionic surfactant vesicles were synthesized as vanillin carriers: neutral niosomes formed by Span60 and cholesterol, positive charged niosomes formulated with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and negatively charged niosomes formulated with sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Niosomes synthesis was carried out with two commonly used methods: thin film hydration (TFH) and ethanol injection method (EIM). The niosomes synthesized were used to prepare two different materials: (i) a powder containing the lyophilized noisome with vanillin systems and (ii) a gelatin matrix film containing niosomes with vanillin. Lyophilization was carried out using maltodextrin as a cryoprotectant. The lyophilization of colloidal structures allows for storage at room temperature for long periods of time, keeping their organoleptic characteristics invariable. Niosomes were characterized before and after the lyophilization process in terms of morphological characterization, size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. Moreover, niosomes cargo was evaluated by calculating the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC). Results showed that the use of the TFH method allowed us to obtain niosomes of 255 nm with high EE (up to 40%) and LC values higher than EIM. The lyophilization process decreased the LC of the vesicles prepared, but this decrease was mitigated by up to 20% when ionic surfactants were used on the membrane bilayer. Gelatin films are biodegradable materials suitable for food packing applications. The incorporation of a natural compound with antimicrobial activity would be a clear advantage for such an application. The films prepared were characterized in terms of morphology, water solubility, color, and transparency. Niosomes synthesized by thin film hydration had better chemical and physical properties to load vanillin. Especially in the case of application in films, niosomes with a negative charge, formed by SDS, and vanillin loaded gave better mechanical and chemical characteristics to the film. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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15 pages, 2525 KiB  
Article
Antibacterial Capability of MXene (Ti3C2Tx) to Produce PLA Active Contact Surfaces for Food Packaging Applications
by Xiomara Santos, Marcos Álvarez, Diogo Videira-Quintela, Aranzazu Mediero, Juana Rodríguez, Francisco Guillén, Javier Pozuelo and Olga Martín
Membranes 2022, 12(11), 1146; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12111146 - 15 Nov 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2200
Abstract
The globalization of the market and the increase of the global population that requires a higher demand of food products superimposes a big challenge to ensure food safety. In this sense, a common strategy to extend the shelf life and save life of [...] Read more.
The globalization of the market and the increase of the global population that requires a higher demand of food products superimposes a big challenge to ensure food safety. In this sense, a common strategy to extend the shelf life and save life of food products is by avoiding bacterial contamination. For this, the development of antibacterial contact surfaces is an urgent need to fulfil the above-mentioned strategy. In this work, the role of MXene (Ti3C2Tx) in providing antibacterial contact surfaces was studied through the creation of composite films from polylactic acid (PLA), as the chosen polymeric matrix. The developed PLA/MXene films maintained the thermal and mechanical properties of PLA and also presented the attractive antibacterial properties of MXene. The composites’ behaviour against two representative foodborne bacteria was studied: Listeria mono-cytogenes and Salmonella enterica (representing Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, respectively). The composites prevented bacterial growth, and in the case of Listeria only 0.5 wt.% of MXene was necessary to reach 99.9999% bactericidal activity (six log reductions), while against Salmonella, 5 wt.% was necessary to achieve 99.999% bactericidal activity (five log reductions). Cy-totoxicity tests with fHDF/TER166 cell line showed that none of the obtained materials were cytotoxic. These results make MXene particles promising candidates for their use as additives into a polymeric matrix, useful to fabricate antibacterial contact surfaces that could prove useful for the food packaging industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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14 pages, 1595 KiB  
Article
Active Starch-Polyester Bilayer Films with Surface-Incorporated Ferulic Acid
by Eva Hernández-García, Maria Vargas and Amparo Chiralt
Membranes 2022, 12(10), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12100976 - 06 Oct 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1725
Abstract
Bilayer films of cassava starch-based (with 10% gellan gum) and polylactic (PLA): Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) polyester blend (with 75% PLA) monolayers were obtained by melt-blending and compression-molding, and the subsequent thermocompressing of both monolayers. Ferulic acid (FA) was incorporated into the polyester sheet by [...] Read more.
Bilayer films of cassava starch-based (with 10% gellan gum) and polylactic (PLA): Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) polyester blend (with 75% PLA) monolayers were obtained by melt-blending and compression-molding, and the subsequent thermocompressing of both monolayers. Ferulic acid (FA) was incorporated into the polyester sheet by spraying and drying. Films were characterized in terms of their microstructure and functional properties throughout two months of storage at 25 °C and 53% relative humidity. The laminates exhibited improved tensile and barrier properties compared to the respective monolayers, which makes them more adequate for food packaging purposes. Surface incorporation of ferulic acid did not significantly modify the barrier and mechanical properties of the films while providing them with antioxidant and antibacterial capacity when applied in aqueous systems, where a complete release of active compounds occurred. The physical properties of the bilayers and layer thermo-sealing were stable throughout storage. Likewise, the antioxidant and antimicrobial active properties were preserved throughout storage. Therefore, these active bilayers represent a sustainable packaging alternative to non-biodegradable, non-recyclable synthetic laminates for food packaging purposes, which could extend the shelf-life of food due to their antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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15 pages, 9909 KiB  
Article
Characterisation and Colour Response of Smart Sago Starch-Based Packaging Films Incorporated with Brassica oleracea Anthocyanin
by Nurul Husna Che Hamzah, Nozieana Khairuddin, Ida Idayu Muhamad, Mohd Ali Hassan, Zainab Ngaini and Shahrul Razid Sarbini
Membranes 2022, 12(10), 913; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12100913 - 21 Sep 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2078
Abstract
To meet the need for food products to be safe and fresh, smart food packaging that can monitor and give information about the quality of packaged food has been developed. In this study, pH-sensitive films with sago starch and various anthocyanin concentrations of [...] Read more.
To meet the need for food products to be safe and fresh, smart food packaging that can monitor and give information about the quality of packaged food has been developed. In this study, pH-sensitive films with sago starch and various anthocyanin concentrations of Brassica oleracea also known as red cabbage anthocyanin (RCA) at 8, 10, 12, and 14% (w/v) were manufactured using the solvent casting process. Investigation of the physicochemical, mechanical, thermal, and morphological characteristics of the films was performed and analysed. The response of these materials against pH changes was evaluated with buffers of different pH. When the films were exposed to a series of pH buffers (pH 3, 5, 9, 11, and 13), the RCA-associated films displayed a spectacular colour response. In addition, the ability of the starch matrix to overcome the leaching and release of anthocyanins was investigated. Higher concentrations of RCA can maintain the colour difference of films after being immersed in a series of buffer solutions ranging from acidic to basic conditions. Other than that, incorporating RCA extracts into the starch formulation increased the thickness whereas the water content, swelling degree, tensile strength, and elongation at break decreased as compared to films without RCA. The immobilisation of anthocyanin into the film was confirmed by the FTIR measurements. The surface patterns of films were heterogeneous and irregular due to the presence of RCA extract aggregates, which increased as the extract concentration enhanced. However, this would not affect the properties of films. An increase in thermal stability was noted for the anthocyanin-containing films at the final stage of degradation in TGA analysis. It is concluded that RCA and sago starch formulation has great potential to be explored for food packaging purposes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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17 pages, 1820 KiB  
Article
Extraction and Characterization of Antioxidant Compounds in Almond (Prunus amygdalus) Shell Residues for Food Packaging Applications
by Arantzazu Valdés, María Carmen Garrigós and Alfonso Jiménez
Membranes 2022, 12(8), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12080806 - 20 Aug 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1992
Abstract
This work proposes the revalorization of almond shell (AS) wastes as an active additive for food packaging applications. A new microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method to obtain extracts rich in polyphenolic compounds with high antioxidant capacity was optimized. An experimental design to optimize the [...] Read more.
This work proposes the revalorization of almond shell (AS) wastes as an active additive for food packaging applications. A new microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) method to obtain extracts rich in polyphenolic compounds with high antioxidant capacity was optimized. An experimental design to optimize the MAE procedure through response surface methodology (RSM) using a Box–Behnken design was proposed. The effects of extraction temperature, irradiation time, ethanol:water concentration, and solvent pH at three levels were evaluated in terms of total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays). The optimal conditions found were 57 min, 80 °C, pH 8, and 70% (v/v) ethanol. Optimized MAE extracts showed low soluble protein content (0.43 mg BSA g−1) and were rich in TPC (5.64 mg GAE g−1), flavonoids (1.42 mg CE g−1), and polysaccharides (1.59 mg glucose g−1), with good antioxidant capacity (2.82 mg AAE acid g−1). These results suggest the potential application of these extracts in the food industry as active additives. This strategy opens new pathways to valorize almond shell residues, contributing to the circular economy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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11 pages, 3572 KiB  
Communication
Characterization of Antimicrobial Composite Edible Film Formulated from Fermented Cheese Whey and Cassava Peel Starch
by Gemilang Lara Utama, Isfari Dinika, Siti Nurmilah, Nanang Masruchin, Bambang Nurhadi and Roostita Lobo Balia
Membranes 2022, 12(6), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12060636 - 20 Jun 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2028
Abstract
Antimicrobial composite edible film can be a solution for environmentally friendly food packaging, which can be made from fermented cheese whey containing an antimicrobial agent and cassava peel waste that contains starch. The research aims to determine the formulation of fermented cheese whey [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial composite edible film can be a solution for environmentally friendly food packaging, which can be made from fermented cheese whey containing an antimicrobial agent and cassava peel waste that contains starch. The research aims to determine the formulation of fermented cheese whey and cassava peel waste starch, resulting in an antimicrobial composite edible film with the best physical, mechanical, and water vapour permeability (WVP) properties, as well as with high antimicrobial activity. This research was conducted using experimental methods with nine composite edible film formulation treatments with three replications. Three variations in the fermented cheese whey and cassava peel starch ratio (v/v) (1:3, 1:1, 3:1) were combined with variations in the addition of glycerol (20%, 33%, 45%) (w/w) in the production of the composite edible film. Then, the physical characteristics such as elongation at break, tensile strength, WVP, colour, and antimicrobial effect of its film-forming solution were observed. The results showed that 24 h of whey fermentation with Candida tropicalis resulted in an 18.50 mm inhibition zone towards Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The best characteristic of the film was obtained from the formulation of a whey:starch ratio of 1:3 and 33% glycerol, which resulted in a thickness value of 0.21 mm, elongation at break of 19.62%, tensile strength of 0.81 N/mm2, WVP of 3.41 × 10−10·g/m·s·Pa at a relative humidity (RH) of 100%–35%, and WVP of 9.84 × 10−10·g/m·s·Pa at a RH of 75%–35%, with an antimicrobial activity towards P. aeruginosa of 5.11 mm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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23 pages, 5484 KiB  
Article
Development of New Biodegradable Agar-Alginate Membranes for Food Packaging
by Sonia Amariei, Florin Ursachi and Ancuţa Petraru
Membranes 2022, 12(6), 576; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12060576 - 31 May 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2401
Abstract
The paper analyzes the possibility of replacing the polyethylene packaging from food products with biodegradable packaging obtained from biopolymers. The proposed packaging materials were obtained from polysaccharides (alginate, agar), glycerol as plasticizer. To improve the properties necessary for the coating materials, two groups [...] Read more.
The paper analyzes the possibility of replacing the polyethylene packaging from food products with biodegradable packaging obtained from biopolymers. The proposed packaging materials were obtained from polysaccharides (alginate, agar), glycerol as plasticizer. To improve the properties necessary for the coating materials, two groups of membranes were made, one with ascorbic acid (AA, 0.1–0.45 g) in 150 mL filmogenic solution and the other with calcium chloride (CaCl2, 0.02–0.1 g) in 150 mL filmogenic solution. The membranes were analyzed for mechanical properties, light transmission, transparency and barrier properties (water vapor, oxygen, or fatty substances). The results demonstrated that the addition of AA (0.1 g), increases tensile strength, transparency, oxygen and water barrier properties. On the other hand, the addition of calcium chloride (0.08 g) increased the hardness, tensile strength and opacity of the membranes. Moreover, it ensured a uniform distribution of the mixture components. The uniformization of the mixture components in the presence of AA and CACl2 was observed by SEM and roughness analysis. Hydrogen bonding interactions between the biopolymers and the additives used were highlighted by FTIR analysis. All membranes have shown very good UV absorption. The results suggest that agar/alginate/glycerol membranes with AA and CaCl2 have the potential to be used in an active food packaging system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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16 pages, 2179 KiB  
Article
Chia Seed Mucilage Edible Films with Origanum vulgare and Satureja montana Essential Oils: Characterization and Antifungal Properties
by Nuria Muñoz-Tébar, Manuel Carmona, Gonzalo Ortiz de Elguea-Culebras, Ana Molina and María Isabel Berruga
Membranes 2022, 12(2), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12020213 - 11 Feb 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3717
Abstract
Films made with mucilage obtained from defatted chia seeds and incorporated with oregano (Origanum vulgare) and savory (Satureja montana) essential oils (0.1,1.0 and 1.5% v/v) were prepared to evaluate their physical, optical, mechanical and antifungal properties [...] Read more.
Films made with mucilage obtained from defatted chia seeds and incorporated with oregano (Origanum vulgare) and savory (Satureja montana) essential oils (0.1,1.0 and 1.5% v/v) were prepared to evaluate their physical, optical, mechanical and antifungal properties as well as their microstructure. The use of different types of essential oils (oregano or savory) only had a significant effect on the light transmittance, total color difference (∆E) and antifungal activity of the films. However, the kind of essential oil was not significant for the physical, optical and mechanical properties of the films. Increasing concentrations of essential oils up to 1.5% v/v led to a decrease in tensile strength (TS) and elongation at break (EB). Antifungal properties significantly increased with the incorporation of essential oils (p < 0.05). The antifungal activity of the chia mucilage films incorporated with O. vulgare and S. montana essential oil was screened by agar disc-diffusion assay against five mold strains commonly found in foods. Films containing 0.1% v/v of essential oils were not active, whereas films containing 1.0 and 1.5% v/v were very effective at inhibiting the growth of the tested mold strains (38.01–77.66%). Scanning electron microscopy showed that incorporation of essential oils caused some heterogeneity in the films and the surface displayed no pores or cracks as well as a better integration of oregano EO in the polymeric network. The results pointed out that the incorporation of oregano and savory essential oils as a natural antimicrobial agent has appreciable potential for the development of films as active packaging to control mold contamination and increase food safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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14 pages, 2516 KiB  
Article
Cellulose Nanofiber-Assisted Dispersion of Halloysite Nanotubes via Silane Coupling Agent-Reinforced Starch–PVA Biodegradable Composite Membrane
by Han Li, Jisheng Yang, Xiaoqiong Feng and Zhiyong Qin
Membranes 2022, 12(2), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12020169 - 30 Jan 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2873
Abstract
HNTs (halloysite nanotubes) are widely used in reinforcing material, often used in material reinforcement and particle loading. However, their easy agglomeration causes them to have great limitations in application. In this work, two kinds of silane coupling agents (KH560 and KH570) were introduced [...] Read more.
HNTs (halloysite nanotubes) are widely used in reinforcing material, often used in material reinforcement and particle loading. However, their easy agglomeration causes them to have great limitations in application. In this work, two kinds of silane coupling agents (KH560 and KH570) were introduced to graft the CNF/HNT (cellulose nanofiber) nanoparticles used to reinforce the starch-polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) composite membranes. The mechanical properties, water resistance properties and thermal performance of the composite membrane were tested. The results showed that the CNF/HNTs nanoparticle system modified by two silane coupling agents enhanced the tensile strength (TS) of the starch–PVA composite membranes by increments of 60.11% and 68.35%, and, in addition, the water resistance of starch–PVA composite membrane improved. The introduction of chemical bonds formed associations and a compact network structure, which increased the thermal stability and the crystallinity of the starch–PVA composite membrane. In the study, we creatively used CNF to disperse HNTs. CNF and HNTs were combined under the action of the silane coupling agent, and then mixed into the starch–PVA membranes matrix to prepare high-performance degradable biological composite membranes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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14 pages, 4380 KiB  
Article
Preparation of Edible Films with Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobionic Acid Produced by Sweet Whey Fermentation
by Sara Sáez-Orviz, Ismael Marcet, Manuel Rendueles and Mario Díaz
Membranes 2022, 12(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12020115 - 19 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1948
Abstract
Cheese whey, one of the most abundant by-products of the dairy industry, causes economic losses and pollution problems. In this study, deproteinised sweet whey was fermented by Pseudomonas taetrolens LMG 2336 to produce a prebiotic compound (lactobionic acid, LBA). Endotoxins produced by these [...] Read more.
Cheese whey, one of the most abundant by-products of the dairy industry, causes economic losses and pollution problems. In this study, deproteinised sweet whey was fermented by Pseudomonas taetrolens LMG 2336 to produce a prebiotic compound (lactobionic acid, LBA). Endotoxins produced by these microorganisms were successfully removed using microfiltration techniques, allowing the fermented whey permeate to be used in the food industry. The fermented whey permeate was used to develop prebiotic edible films by adding two different concentrations of gelatine (0.45 and 0.9 g gelatine g−1 LBA; LBA45 and LBA90). Furthermore, Lactobacillus plantarum CECT 9567 was added as a probiotic microorganism (LP45 and LP90), creating films containing both a prebiotic and a probiotic. The mechanical properties, water solubility, light transmittance, colour, and microstructure of the films were fully characterised. Additionally, the LBA and probiotic concentration in LP45 and LP90 were monitored under storage conditions. The strength and water solubility of the films were affected by the presence of LBA, and though all these films were homogeneous, they were slightly opaque. In LP45 and LP90, the presence of LBA as a prebiotic improved the viability of L. plantarum during cold storage, compared to the control. Therefore, these films could be used in the food industry to coat different foodstuffs to obtain functional products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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14 pages, 2310 KiB  
Article
Egg Yolk Oil as a Plasticizer for Polylactic Acid Films
by María Carpintero, Ismael Marcet, Manuel Rendueles and Mario Díaz
Membranes 2022, 12(1), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12010046 - 29 Dec 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1665
Abstract
Polylactic acid (PLA) is known to be one of the most extensively used biodegradable thermoplastic polyesters, with the potential to replace conventional petroleum-based packaging materials; however, the low flexibility of films prepared using PLA has limited the applications of this biopolymer. In this [...] Read more.
Polylactic acid (PLA) is known to be one of the most extensively used biodegradable thermoplastic polyesters, with the potential to replace conventional petroleum-based packaging materials; however, the low flexibility of films prepared using PLA has limited the applications of this biopolymer. In this study, in order to improve the mechanical properties of PLA films and to provide them with antioxidant properties, egg yolk oil was used as a biobased plasticizer. For this purpose, PLA films with increasing concentrations of egg yolk oil were prepared and the effects of this oil on the light transmission, transparency, colour, water vapour permeability, solubility, antioxidant activity and mechanical properties of the films were characterized. In addition, electron microscopy of the structure of the transverse section of the films was also performed. Results showed that the formulations with higher concentrations of egg yolk oil increased the films’ elasticity, and their light barrier and antioxidant properties. Finally, in order to test the films as a packaging material for food applications, extra virgin olive oil and resveratrol, both photosensitive compounds, were packed and exposed to ambient light. Overall, the results show the potential of egg yolk oil as an environmentally friendly plasticizer that can improve the flexibility of PLA films and provide them with additional photoprotective properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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12 pages, 1716 KiB  
Article
Novel Bovine Plasma Protein Film Reinforced with Nanofibrillated Cellulose Fiber as Edible Food Packaging Material
by Shihan Weng, Sara Sáez-Orviz, Ismael Marcet, Manuel Rendueles and Mario Díaz
Membranes 2022, 12(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12010031 - 27 Dec 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2340
Abstract
Proteins, such as those in blood from slaughterhouses, are a good option for developing edible films. However, films made exclusively from proteins have low strength and high water solubility, which makes them difficult to use in the food industry. The use of cellulosic [...] Read more.
Proteins, such as those in blood from slaughterhouses, are a good option for developing edible films. However, films made exclusively from proteins have low strength and high water solubility, which makes them difficult to use in the food industry. The use of cellulosic material, such as nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC), can improve the properties of these films. In the present work, bovine plasma was acidified and treated with ethanol to precipitate its proteins, and these proteins were used to prepare films reinforced with several concentrations of NFC. In addition, control films prepared with untreated bovine plasma and reinforced with NFC were prepared as well. These new edible films were characterized according to their mechanical properties, water vapor permeability, light transmittance, and microstructure. Furthermore, the film with the best properties was selected to be additivated with nisin to test its antimicrobial properties by wrapping meat previously contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus. In this sense, films prepared with the extracted proteins showed better properties than the films prepared with untreated plasma. In addition, the results showed that the reinforcement of the films with a 10% (w/w) of NFC decreased their water solubility and improved their puncture strength and water vapor barrier properties. Finally, the addition of nisin to the films prepared with extracted protein from bovine plasma and NFC gave them antimicrobial properties against S. aureus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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13 pages, 1758 KiB  
Article
Incorporation of Lipids into Wheat Bran Cellulose/Wheat Gluten Composite Film Improves Its Water Resistance Properties
by Guanghui Shen, Guoxian Yu, Hejun Wu, Shanshan Li, Xiaoyan Hou, Meiliang Li, Qingye Li, Xingyan Liu, Man Zhou, Anjun Chen and Zhiqing Zhang
Membranes 2022, 12(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12010018 - 24 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2862
Abstract
This work evaluated the improvement effects of lipids incorporation on water resistance of composite biodegradable film prepared with wheat bran cellulose/wheat gluten (WBC/WG) using an alkaline–ethanol film forming system. Four types of lipids, paraffin wax (PW), beeswax (BW), paraffin oil (PO), and oleic [...] Read more.
This work evaluated the improvement effects of lipids incorporation on water resistance of composite biodegradable film prepared with wheat bran cellulose/wheat gluten (WBC/WG) using an alkaline–ethanol film forming system. Four types of lipids, paraffin wax (PW), beeswax (BW), paraffin oil (PO), and oleic acid (OA), were tested. We found that PW, BW, and PO incorporation at 5–20% improved water vapor permeability (WVP) and surface hydrophobicity of prepared films. Particularly, incorporation of 15% BW could best improve the water resistance properties of the film, with the lowest WVP of 0.76 × 10−12 g/cm·s·Pa and largest water contact angle (WCA) of 86.18°. Incorporation of OA led to the decline in moisture barrier properties. SEM images revealed that different lipids incorporation changed the morphology and of the composite film, and cross-sectional morphology indicated BW-incorporated film obtained more uniform and compact structures compared to other films. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared spectra indicated that the incorporation of PW or BW enhanced the molecular interactions between the film components, confirmed by the chemical shift of characteristic peaks at 3277 and 1026 cm−1. Differential scanning calorimetry results revealed that incorporation of PW, BW, and PO increased films’ melting point, decomposition temperatures, and enthalpy values. Furthermore, the presence of most lipids decreased tensile strength and elongation at the break of the film. Overall, the composite film containing 15% BW obtained the most promising water resistance performance and acceptable mechanical properties, and it thus most suitable as a hydrophobic biodegradable material for food packaging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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Review

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26 pages, 754 KiB  
Review
Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Gelatin-Based Films as a Potential Food Packaging Material: A Review
by Nurul Saadah Said and Norizah Mhd Sarbon
Membranes 2022, 12(5), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12050442 - 19 Apr 2022
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5841
Abstract
This review discusses the potential application of gelatin-based film as biodegradable food packaging material from various types of gelatin sources. The exploitation of gelatin as one of the biopolymer packaging in the food industry has rising interest among researchers as the world becomes [...] Read more.
This review discusses the potential application of gelatin-based film as biodegradable food packaging material from various types of gelatin sources. The exploitation of gelatin as one of the biopolymer packaging in the food industry has rising interest among researchers as the world becomes more concerned about environmental problems caused by petroleum-based packaging and increasing consumer demands on food safety. Single gelatin-based film properties have been characterized in comparison with active and intelligent gelatin-based composite films. The physical properties of gelatin-based film such as thickness, color, and biodegradability were much influenced by total solid contents in each film. While, for mechanical and light barrier properties, poultry-based gelatin films have shown better properties compared to mammalian and marine gelatin films. This paper detailed the information on gelatin-based film characterization in comparison with active and intelligent gelatin-based composite films. The physical properties of gelatin-based film such as color, UV-Vis absorption spectra, water vapor permeability, thermal, and moisture properties are discussed along with their mechanical properties, including tensile strength and elongation at break. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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19 pages, 1012 KiB  
Review
The Emergence and Impact of Ethylene Scavengers Techniques in Delaying the Ripening of Fruits and Vegetables
by Mohd Affandy Aqilah Mariah, Joseph Merillyn Vonnie, Kana Husna Erna, Nasir Md Nur’Aqilah, Nurul Huda, Roswanira Abdul Wahab and Kobun Rovina
Membranes 2022, 12(2), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12020117 - 20 Jan 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6488
Abstract
As the top grocery list priorities, the primary challenge when purchasing fruits and vegetables from supermarkets is obtaining fresh, minimally processed perishable goods. This source of diet is critical for obtaining vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fibres. However, the short shelf life caused by [...] Read more.
As the top grocery list priorities, the primary challenge when purchasing fruits and vegetables from supermarkets is obtaining fresh, minimally processed perishable goods. This source of diet is critical for obtaining vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and fibres. However, the short shelf life caused by moisture content in rapid deterioration and decay caused by microbial growth, results in unappealing appearances. Fruits and vegetables undergo ripening and eventually the ageing process, in which the tissues of the plants degrade. Even after harvesting, numerous biological processes occur, generating a significant variation of ethylene production along with respiration rates between fruits and vegetables. Thus, the utilization of ethylene scavengers in food packaging or films has been revealed to be beneficial. The synergistic effects of these biomaterials have been demonstrated to reduce microorganisms and prolong the shelf life of greens due to antimicrobial activity, oxygen scavenging capacity, enzyme immobilization, texture enhancers, and nutraceuticals. The current review fills this void by discussing the most recent advances in research on ethylene scavengers and removal mechanisms of ethylene, including oxidation in fruit and vegetable packaging. The application and advantages of ethylene scavengers in packaging are then discussed with the addition of how the efficiency related to ethylene scavengers can be increased through atmospheric packaging tools. In this context, the article discusses characteristics, types of applications, and efficacy of ethylene control strategies for perishable commodities with the inclusion of future implications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Films Characterization and Food Packaging)
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