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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Thin Films and Interfaces".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2022) | Viewed by 24006

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Dr. Józef Iwaszko

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Department of Technology and Automation, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, Czestochowa University of Technology, 19 Armii Krajowej St., 42-200 Czestochowa, Poland
Interests: surface engineering; friction stir processing; surface remelting treatment; metal matrix composities; materials processing; waste management
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Jerzy Winczek

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Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, Department of Technology and Automation, Czestochowa University of Technology, 19 Armii Krajowej St., 42-200 Czestochowa, Poland
Interests: thermal and metallurgical fundamentals of welding; theory, modelling and experimental investigation of welding processes; technological aspects of welding, surfacing by welding (hardfacing, rebuilding); thermomechanical states of welding, laser and heat treatment processes (temperature field, phase changes, strains and stresses, analytical and numerical methods, modelling); mechanics of materials
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Friction stir processing (FSP) is a promising new technique for the grain refinement of many engineering materials. This technology is derived from FSW technology, but differs because it is not used to join materials, but to shape the microstructure and properties of the surface layer. The microstructure evolution in friction stir processed materials is the result of the processing parameters, shape and dimensions of the tool, as well as, for example, the method of sample cooling. FSP technology has numerous potential applications and now competes with other grain refinement techniques. FSP is used, among others, to modify the surface layer of metals and their alloys, polymers, composites, plasma sprayed coatings, and so on.

Bearing in mind the dynamic development of FSP technology, numerous methodological innovations and the growing importance of this method in shaping the microstructure and properties of engineering materials, we cordially invite everyone to present their own results of research on the production, characteristics and properties of friction stir processed materials or to present the results indicating new trends and development directions of FSP technology. The Special Issue is also dedicated to scientists who model and simulate the processes responsible for the formation of the microstructure during FSP/FSW and determining the properties of the material. Authors are encouraged to contribute to the Special Issue by submitting original papers or review articles.

Dr. Józef Iwaszko
Prof. Dr. Jerzy Winczek
Guest Editors

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Keywords

friction stir processed materials
friction stir welding
microstructure evolution
grain refinement
FSP with additional cooling: submerged friction stir processing, cryogenic cooling, and other

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 220 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials

by Józef Iwaszko and Jerzy Winczek

Materials 2022, 15(11), 3742; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113742 - 24 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 985

Abstract

In recent years, on the basis of FSP/FSW technologies, a number of new solutions, methods and variants have been developed, constituting not only proof of the continuous evolution of FSP/FSW technologies, but also of the huge scientific and application potential hidden in these [...] Read more.

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

20 pages, 13925 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Friction Stir Spot Welding of Different Thickness Sheets of Aluminum Alloy AA6082-T6

by Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Mohamed M. El-Sayed Seleman, Essam Ahmed, Hagar A. Reyad, Kamel Touileb and Ibrahim Albaijan

Materials 2022, 15(9), 2971; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15092971 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2234

Abstract

Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) is one of the important variants of the friction stir welding (FSW) process. FSSW has been developed mainly for automotive applications where the different thickness sheets spot welding is essential. In the present work, different thin thickness sheets (1 mm and 2 mm) of AA6082-T6 were welded using FSSW at a constant dwell time of 3 s and different rotation speeds of 400, 600, 800, and 1000 rpm. The FSSW heat input was calculated, and the temperature cycle experience during the FSSW process was recorded. Both starting materials and produced FSSW joints were investigated by macro- and microstructural investigation, a hardness test, and a tensile shear test, and the fractured surfaces were examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The macro examination showed that defect-free spot joints were produced at a wide range of rotation speeds (400–1000 rpm). The microstructural results in terms of grain refining of the stir zone (SZ) of the joints show good support for the mechanical properties of FSSW joints. It was found that the best welding condition was 600 rpm for achieving different thin sheet thicknesses spot joints with the SZ hardness of 95 ± 2 HV0.5 and a tensile shear load of 4300 ± 30 N. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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25 pages, 10455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolution of Microstructure and Properties of Air-Cooled Friction-Stir-Processed 7075 Aluminum Alloy

by Józef Iwaszko and Krzysztof Kudła

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2633; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072633 - 2 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1716

Abstract

A rolled plate of 7075 aluminum alloy was friction-stir-processed (FSP) with simultaneous cooling by an air stream cooled to −11 °C with a jet cooling nozzle. Two variants of air blowing were used: at an angle of 45° to the sample surface and at an angle of 90°. The reference material was a sample subjected to analogous treatment but naturally cooled in still air. The microstructural tests revealed strong grain refinement in all the samples, with higher grain refinement obtained in the air-cooled friction-stir-processed samples. For the naturally cooled samples, the average grain size in the near-surface area was 7.6 µm, while for the air-cooled sample, it was 1.4 µm for the 45° airflow variant and 3.2 µm for the 90° airflow variant. A consequence of the greater grain refinement was that the hardness of the air-cooled friction-stir-processed samples was higher than that of the naturally cooled samples. The improvement in abrasive wear resistance was achieved only in the case of the friction-stir-processed specimens with air cooling. It was found that the change in the air blowing angle affects not only the degree of grain refinement in the stirring zone, but also the geometrical structure of the surface. In all the samples, FSP caused redistribution of the intermetallic precipitates combined with their partial dissolution in the matrix. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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18 pages, 2913 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Microstructure and Tensile Shear Load Characteristics Evaluated by Process Parameters in Friction Stir Lap Welding of Aluminum-Steel with Pipe Shapes

by Leejon Choy, Myungchang Kang and Dongwon Jung

Materials 2022, 15(7), 2602; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072602 - 1 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1880

Abstract

In recent years, friction stir welding (FSW) of dissimilar materials has become an important issue in lightweight and eco-friendly bonding technology. Although weight reduction of low-rigidity parts has been achieved, the weight reduction has been minimal because high-rigidity parts such as chassis require the use of iron. Considering the difficulty of welding a pipe shape, it is necessary to understand the effect of process parameters on mechanical performance. As a result of the study by various process parameters affecting the joint between aluminum and steel in the shape of a pipe, it can be seen that the tool penetration depth (TPD) has the most important effect on the tensile shear load (TSL). However, the effect of TPD on intermetallic compound (IMC), which has the most important influence on fracture, has not been well established. In this study, the effect of process parameters on IMC thickness and TSL in FSW of A357 cast aluminum and FB590 high tensile steel was investigated to reduce the weight of the torsion beam shaft of an automobile chassis. After the FSWed experiment, measurements were performed using an optical microscope and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to investigate the microstructure of the weld. The formation of an IMC layer was observed at the interlayer between aluminum and steel. TPD is a major factor in IMC thickness variation, and there is a direct relationship between IMC thickness reduction and TSL increase, except for certain sections where the welding speed (WS) effect is large. Therefore, in order to improve mechanical properties in friction stir lap welding of aluminum and steel for high-rigidity parts, it is necessary to deepen the TPD at a level where flow is dominant rather than heat input. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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24 pages, 8549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effective Range of FSSW Parameters for High Load-Carrying Capacity of Dissimilar Steel A283M-C/Brass CuZn40 Joints

by Sabbah Ataya, Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Mohamed M. El-Sayed Seleman, Khalil Hajlaoui, Fahamsyah H. Latief, Ahmed M. Soliman, Yousef G. Y. Elshaghoul and Mohamed I. A. Habba

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1394; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041394 - 14 Feb 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1854

Abstract

In the current study, a 2 mm thick low-carbon steel sheet (A283M—Grade C) was joined with a brass sheet (CuZn40) of 1 mm thickness using friction stir spot welding (FSSW). Different welding parameters including rotational speeds of 1000, 1250, and 1500 rpm, and dwell times of 5, 10, 20, and 30 s were applied to explore the effective range of parameters to have FSSW joints with high load-carrying capacity. The joint quality of the friction stir spot-welded (FSSWed) dissimilar materials was evaluated via visual examination, tensile lap shear test, hardness test, and macro- and microstructural investigation using SEM. Moreover, EDS analysis was applied to examine the mixing at the interfaces of the dissimilar materials. Heat input calculation for the FSSW of steel–brass was found to be linearly proportional with the number of revolutions per spot joint, with maximum heat input obtained of 11 kJ at the number of revolutions of 500. The temperature measurement during FSSW showed agreement with the heat input dependence on the number of revolution. However, at the same revolutions of 500, it was found that the higher rotation speed of 1500 rpm resulted in higher temperature of 583 °C compared to 535 °C at rotation speed of 1000 rpm. This implies the significant effect for the rotation speed in the increase of temperature. The macro investigations of the friction stir spot-welded joints transverse sections showed sound joints at the different investigated parameters with significant joint ligament between the steel and brass. FSSW of steel/brass joints with a number of revolutions ranging between 250 to 500 revolutions per spot at appropriate tool speed range (1000–1500 rpm) produces joints with high load-carrying capacity from 4 kN to 7.5 kN. The hardness showed an increase in the carbon steel (lower sheet) with maximum of 248 HV and an increase of brass hardness at mixed interface between brass and steel with significant reduction in the stir zone hardness. Microstructural investigation of the joint zone showed mechanical mixing between steel and brass with the steel extruded from the lower sheet into the upper brass sheet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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16 pages, 6084 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Temper Condition and Feeding Speed on the Additive Manufacturing of AA2011 Parts Using Friction Stir Deposition

by Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Mohamed M. El-Sayed Seleman, Ebtessam Elfishawy, Bandar Alzahrani, Kamel Touileb and Mohamed I. A. Habba

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6396; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216396 - 25 Oct 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2074

Abstract

In the current study, solid-state additive manufacturing (SSAM) of two temper conditions AA2011 was successfully conducted using the friction stir deposition (FSD) process. The AA2011-T6 and AA2011-O consumable bars of 20 mm diameter were used as a feeding material against AA5083 substrate. The effect of the rotation rate and feeding speed of the consumable bars on the macrostructure, microstructure, and hardness of the friction stir deposited (FSD) materials were examined. The AA2011-T6 bars were deposited at a constant rotation rate of 1200 rpm and different feeding speeds of 3, 6, and 9 mm/min, whereas the AA2011-O bars were deposited at a constant rotation rate of 200 mm/min and varied feeding speeds of 1, 2, and 3 mm/min. The obtained microstructure was investigated using an optical microscope and scanning electron microscope equipped with EDS analysis to evaluate microstructural features. Hardness was also assessed as average values and maps. The results showed that this new technique succeeded in producing sound additive manufactured parts at all the applied processing parameters. The microstructures of the additive manufactured parts showed equiaxed refined grains compared to the coarse grain of the starting materials. The detected intermetallics in AA2011 alloy are mainly Al₂Cu and Al₇Cu₂Fe. The improvement in hardness of AA2011-O AMPs reached 163% of the starting material hardness at the applied feeding speed of 1 mm/min. The hardness mapping analysis reveals a homogeneous hardness profile along the building direction. Finally, it can be said that the temper conditions of the starting AA2011 materials govern the selection of the processing parameters in terms of rotation rate and feeding speed and affects the properties of the produced additive manufactured parts in terms of hardness and microstructural features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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17 pages, 3045 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Process Factors on Tensile Shear Load Using the Definitive Screening Design in Friction Stir Lap Welding of Aluminum–Steel with a Pipe Shape

by Leejon Choy, Seungkyung Kim, Jeonghun Park, Myungchang Kang and Dongwon Jung

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5787; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195787 - 3 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1553

Abstract

Recently, friction stir welding of dissimilar materials has emerged as one of the most significant issues in lightweight, eco-friendly bonding technology. In this study, we welded the torsion beam shaft—an automobile chassis component—with cast aluminum to lighten it. The study rapidly and economically investigated the effects of friction stir welding and process parameters for A357 cast aluminum and FB590 high-strength steel; 14 decomposition experiments were conducted using a definitive screening design that could simultaneously determine the effects of multiple factors. Friction stir welding experiments were conducted using an optical microscope to investigate the tensile shear load behavior in the welding zone. In addition to understanding the interactions between tool penetration depth and plunge speed and tool penetration depth and dwell time, we investigated and found that tool penetration depth positively affected the size of the hooking area and contributed to the stabilization and size reduction of the cavity. The experimental results showed that the plunge depth and tool penetration depth effects were most important; in this case, the plunge depth negatively affected the magnitude of tensile shear load, whereas the tool penetration depth had a positive effect. Therefore, when selecting a tool, it is important to consider the plunge depth and tool penetration depth in lap welding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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22 pages, 11993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Friction Stir Welding of 2205 Duplex Stainless Steel: Feasibility of Butt Joint Groove Filling in Comparison to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

by Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Khaled A. Abdelazem, Mohamed M. El-Sayed Seleman, Bandar Alzahrani, Kamel Touileb, Nabil Jouini, Ismail G. El-Batanony and Hussein M. Abd El-Aziz

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4597; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164597 - 16 Aug 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3669

Abstract

This work investigates the feasibility of using friction stir welding (FSW) process as a groove filling welding technique to weld duplex stainless steel (DSS) that is extensively used by petroleum service companies and marine industries. For the FSW experiments, three different groove geometries without root gap were designed and machined in a DSS plates 6.5 mm thick. FSW were carried out to produce butt-joints at a constant tool rotation rate of 300 rpm, traverse welding speed of 25 mm/min, and tilt angle of 3^o using tungsten carbide (WC) tool. For comparison, the same DSS plates were welded using gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The produced joints were evaluated and characterized using radiographic inspection, optical microscopy, and hardness and tensile testing. Electron back scattering diffraction (EBSD) was used to examine the grain structure and phases before and after FSW. The initial results indicate that FSW were used successfully to weld DSS joints with different groove designs with defect-free joints produced using the 60° V-shape groove with a 2 mm root face without root gap. This friction stir welded (FSWed) joint was further investigated and compared with the GTAW joint. The FSWed joint microstructure mainly consists of α and γ with significant grain refining; the GTWA weld contains different austenitic-phase (γ) morphologies such as grain boundary austenite (GBA), intragranular austenite precipitates (IGA), and Widmanstätten austenite (WA) besides the ferrite phase (α) in the weld zone (WZ) due to the used high heat input and 2209 filler rod. The yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and elongation of the FSWed joint are enhanced over the GTAW weldment by 21%, 41%, and 66% and over the BM by 65%, 33%, and 54%, respectively. EBSD investigation showed a significant grain refining after FSW with grain size average of 1.88 µm for austenite and 2.2 µm for ferrite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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22 pages, 36579 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bobbin Tool Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Thick Lap Joints: Effect of Process Parameters on Temperature Distribution and Joints’ Properties

by Mohamed M. Z. Ahmed, Mohamed I. A. Habba, Mohamed M. El-Sayed Seleman, Khalil Hajlaoui, Sabbah Ataya, Fahamsyah H. Latief and Ahmed E. EL-Nikhaily

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4585; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164585 - 15 Aug 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3129

Abstract

Bobbin tool friction stir welding (BT-FSW) is characterized by a fully penetrated pin and double-sided shoulder that promote symmetrical solid-state joints. However, control of the processing parameters to obtain defect-free thick lap joints is still difficult and needs more effort. In this study, the BT-FSW process was used to produce 10 mm AA1050-H14 similar lap joints. A newly designed bobbin tool (BT) with three different pin geometries (cylindrical, square, and triangular) and concave shoulders profile was designed, manufactured, and applied to produce the Al alloy lap joints. The experiments were carried out at a constant tool rotation speed of 600 rpm and a wide range of various welding travel speeds of 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 mm/min. The generated temperature during the BT-FSW process was recorded and analyzed at the joints’ center line, and at both advancing and retreating sides. Visual inspection, macrostructures, hardness, and tensile properties were investigated. The fracture surfaces after tensile testing were also examined. The results showed that the pin geometry and travel speed are considered the most important controlling parameters in BT-FSW thick lap joints. The square (Sq) pin geometry gives the highest BT-FSW stir zone temperature compared to the other two pins, cylindrical (Cy) and triangular (Tr), whereas the Tr pin gives the lowest stir zone temperature at all applied travel speeds from 200 to 1000 mm/min. Furthermore, the temperature along the lap joints decreased with increasing the welding speed, and the maximum temperature of 380 °C was obtained at the lowest travel speed of 200 mm/min with applying Sq pin geometry. The temperature at the advancing side (AS) was higher than that at the retreating side (RS) by around 20 °C. Defect-free welds were produced using a bobbin tool with Cy and Sq pin geometries at all the travel welding speeds investigated. BT-FSW at a travel speed of 200 mm/min leads to the highest tensile shear properties, in the case of using the Sq pin. The hardness profiles showed a significant effect for both the tool pin geometry and the welding speed, whereas the width of the softened region is reduced dramatically with increasing the welding speed and using the triangular pin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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16 pages, 10872 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical and Microstructural Characterization of Friction Stir Welded SiC and B₄C Reinforced Aluminium Alloy AA6061 Metal Matrix Composites

by Kaveripakkam Suban Ashraff Ali, Vinayagam Mohanavel, Subbiah Arungalai Vendan, Manickam Ravichandran, Anshul Yadav, Marek Gucwa and Jerzy Winczek

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3110; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113110 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 3318

Abstract

This study focuses on the properties and process parameters dictating behavioural aspects of friction stir welded Aluminium Alloy AA6061 metal matrix composites reinforced with varying percentages of SiC and B₄C. The joint properties in terms of mechanical strength, microstructural integrity and quality were examined. The weld reveals grain refinement and uniform distribution of reinforced particles in the joint region leading to improved strength compared to other joints of varying base material compositions. The tensile properties of the friction stir welded Al-MMCs improved after reinforcement with SiC and B₄C. The maximum ultimate tensile stress was around 172.8 ± 1.9 MPa for composite with 10% SiC and 3% B₄C reinforcement. The percentage elongation decreased as the percentage of SiC decreases and B₄C increases. The hardness of the Al-MMCs improved considerably by adding reinforcement and subsequent thermal action during the FSW process, indicating an optimal increase as it eliminates brittleness. It was seen that higher SiC content contributes to higher strength, improved wear properties and hardness. The wear rate was as high as 12 ± 0.9 g/s for 10% SiC reinforcement and 30 N load. The wear rate reduced for lower values of load and increased with B₄C reinforcement. The microstructural examination at the joints reveals the flow of plasticized metal from advancing to the retreating side. The formation of onion rings in the weld zone was due to the cylindrical FSW rotating tool material impression during the stirring action. Alterations in chemical properties are negligible, thereby retaining the original characteristics of the materials post welding. No major cracks or pores were observed during the non-destructive testing process that established good quality of the weld. The results are indicated improvement in mechanical and microstructural properties of the weld. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Friction Stir Processed Materials)

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