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Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control

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A Special Issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944) belonging to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 December 2026 | Viewed by 8520

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Editors

Dr. Yingda Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu 610039, China
Interests: blended cement-based concrete; SCMs; prediction model; concrete crack

Dr. Ye Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610106, China
Interests: UHPC; ECC; fiber; concrete-filled steel tubes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Zihao Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor Assistant

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, The University of Kitakyushu, 1-1 Hibikino Wakamatsu, Fukuoka 8080135, Japan
Interests: sustainable concrete; geopolymer; fly ash; recycled aggregate

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Cracking remains a major challenge in the durable design and construction of modern infrastructure. In particular, cement-based systems incorporating supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), fibers, or other functional components—commonly used in structural concrete, tunnel linings, repair mortars, and high-performance composites—often exhibit complex hydration behavior, volumetric instability, and stress development, which contribute to various forms of cracking. These issues are further complicated by the demands of sustainability, performance, and service life in diverse environmental and loading conditions. This Special Issue aims to provide a comprehensive platform for cutting-edge research on the mechanisms, evaluation techniques, predictive modeling, and control strategies related to cracking in cement-based and composite materials used across infrastructure applications. Topics of interest include but are not limited to hydration heat control, autogenous and drying shrinkage, thermal stress evolution, restrained cracking behavior, creep effects, fiber reinforcement, numerical and analytical modeling approaches, and the role of innovative admixtures and internal curing techniques. Studies addressing both fundamental scientific understanding and practical engineering applications—spanning buildings, bridges, tunnels, pavements, and other critical structures—are encouraged. By bringing together multidisciplinary insights, this Special Issue seeks to advance the knowledge base on crack formation and mitigation, supporting the development of more resilient, sustainable, and long-lasting construction materials and systems.

Dr. Yingda Zhang
Dr. Ye Liu
Guest Editors

Dr. Zihao Liu
Guest Editor Assistant

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Keywords

hydration heat control and temperature stress evolution in mass concrete and composite sections
autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and their coupling with mechanical constraints
creep–shrinkage interaction and its influence on long-term crack risk
cracking behavior in uhpc, ecc, geopolymer concrete, recycled aggregate concrete (rac), and other sustainable materials
crack control techniques using internal curing agents, shrinkage-reducing admixtures (sras), expansive agents, and advanced chemical admixtures
effect of fiber reinforcement (steel, synthetic, basalt, etc.) on cracking resistance
numerical and analytical modeling of crack initiation, propagation, and stress development
testing methods for restrained cracking, fracture toughness, and durability under multi-physical loading
case studies and field applications in structural, tunnel, and underground engineering

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Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

25 pages, 6216 KB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Carbon UHPC Incorporating GGBS–Calcium Carbide Slag and Recycled Plastic Fibers: Mechanical Properties, Hydration, and Sustainability

by Weiliang Wang, Haoran Guo, Tianjiao Han, Qi Wang and Yanjie Wang

Materials 2026, 19(15), 3277; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19153277 - 3 Aug 2026

Viewed by 261

Abstract

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) typically contains high cement and steel-fiber contents, leading to high cost and carbon emissions. This study developed a low-carbon UHPC by partially replacing cement with industrial solid waste (ISW) composed of ground granulated blast-furnace slag and calcium carbide slag, and by partially replacing steel fibers with recycled plastic fibers (RPF). The effects of ISW and RPF on flowability, mechanical properties, hydration behavior, microstructure, carbon emissions, and raw-material cost were investigated. ISW had a limited influence on flowability, whereas RPF markedly reduced flowability. Appropriate ISW and RPF contents increased flexural and compressive strengths by up to 41.02% and 14.93%, respectively. The 30% ISW-50% RPF mixture provided the highest flexural strength, while 30% ISW-30% RPF achieved the highest compressive strength with acceptable flowability. Hydration heat, XRD, SEM, and FTIR analyses showed that moderate ISW promoted early hydration and C-S-H/C-A-S-H gel formation, whereas excessive ISW caused dilution and reduced matrix compactness. Therefore, 30% ISW-30% RPF is recommended as the balanced formulation, whereas 50% ISW-50% RPF is more suitable for carbon- and cost-sensitive applications and maintains approximately 150 MPa compressive strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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18 pages, 21140 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Cross-Scale Structured Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Shotcrete

by Mengmeng Liu, Lu Zhang, Xiaoou Zhang, Wenwen Xing, Wenhua Zhu, Huadong Li, Zhiqiang Chen and Zhongjing Hu

Materials 2026, 19(14), 3102; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19143102 - 19 Jul 2026

Viewed by 366

Abstract

With the increasing demand for tunnel construction under extreme geological conditions such as high geo-stress, rock bursts, and fault zones, the performance requirements for shotcrete in initial support systems have become more stringent. This study develops a cross-scale structured hybrid fiber-reinforced shotcrete by incorporating alkali-resistant glass fibers including HP and HD types with different lengths and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) into a conventional shotcrete matrix. An orthogonal experimental design at four factors and four levels was adopted to investigate the effects of fiber and CNT contents on the mechanical properties and microstructure of shotcrete. Uniaxial compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, slumping, rebound rate, and microscopic characteristics such as SEM were evaluated at 3, 7, and 28 days. Results show that the optimal mix proportion is 4% HP fiber (24 mm), 2% HD fiber (18 mm), 2% HD fiber (6 mm), and 0.2% CNT. Under this formulation, the 28-day compressive and splitting tensile strengths reached 43.53 MPa and 4.85 MPa, respectively, with a rebound rate as low as 3.85%. The enhanced performance is attributed to the multi-scale reinforcement mechanism. Long fibers suppress macroscopic cracks, short fibers bridge micro-cracks, and CNTs densify the interfacial transition zone. This study provides a parametric reference for the development of high-performance shotcrete and its engineering application in complex underground excavations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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28 pages, 6864 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation of Ternary Solid Waste-Based Composite Cementitious Material and Its Performance in Stabilized Gravel

by Yifei Wang, Lihua Zhong, Jian Sun, Haojie Ji, Wei Chen and Zunqing Liu

Materials 2026, 19(13), 2870; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19132870 - 5 Jul 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 400

Abstract

To support the achievement of the carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals and promote the resource utilization of industrial solid waste, a ternary solid waste composite cementitious material was prepared by blending ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), fly ash (FA), and carbide slag (CS) with cement. The optimal mix ratio was determined through single-factor experiments and response surface methodology. The synergistic hydration mechanism was elucidated using microstructural characterization techniques, including XRD, FTIR, TG-DTG, and SEM. The composite material was then applied to a semirigid base course, and its mechanical properties and durability were systematically evaluated. The results indicate that the optimal levels of FA, GGBFS, and CS investigated in the single-factor experiments are 20–40%, 30–50%, and 2–6%, respectively. The optimal mix ratio of the ternary solid waste composite is 21.0% FA, 36.3% GGBFS, and 5.7% CS. The underlying microstructural mechanism is that carbide slag creates a highly alkaline environment, which activates the pozzolanic activity of GGBFS and fly ash, leading to the formation of hydration products dominated by C-(A)-S-H gel. With increasing curing age, the gel structure evolves from a loose and disordered state to a dense and ordered state, ultimately forming a compact microstructure based on a highly polymerized C-(A)-S-H gel matrix. The 7-day unconfined compressive strength of the stabilized gravel using the solid waste-based composite cementitious material reached 5.93 MPa, and the 28-day drying shrinkage coefficient was reduced by 18.3% compared with that of cement-stabilized gravel. After 18 freeze–thaw cycles, the compressive strength increased by 2.4%, with the pore structure characterized by a “macropores decreasing, micropores increasing” refinement pattern. After 18 wetting–drying cycles, the cumulative strength loss was 11.26%, outperforming cement-stabilized gravel. Combined with SEM observations, these performance improvements are attributed to the densely intertwined hydration products, particularly C-S-H gel, which effectively fill the voids between aggregate particles and significantly enhance the volume stability, freeze–thaw resistance, and wetting–drying durability of the stabilized gravel. The application of this cementitious material in a semirigid base course demonstrates excellent mechanical and durability properties, providing a theoretical basis and technical support for the widespread application of industrial solid waste in road engineering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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17 pages, 6108 KB

Open AccessArticle

Prediction of Bond Strength in Corroded Reinforced Concrete Using SVM and XGB Methods

by Zhi-Qiang Chen, Zhuang Chen and Ying-Zi Zhong

Materials 2026, 19(10), 1928; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19101928 - 8 May 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 457

Abstract

The bond strength of corroded reinforced concrete (CRC) structures is critical for structural safety and long-term durability. However, the corrosion-induced bond degradation process is influenced by multiple, coupled factors and exhibits complex, nonlinear behavior, making it difficult for traditional theoretical models to provide accurate predictions. To address this challenge, this study proposes a novel, unified prediction framework based on machine learning techniques. A total of 391 experimental datasets were collected and compiled, covering key parameters including bond strength, reinforcing bar diameter, yield strength, concrete cover thickness, concrete compressive strength, mass loss rate due to corrosion, and the presence of stirrups. Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) algorithms were employed to develop predictive models for bond strength. Model training and testing were performed using 10-fold cross-validation. Furthermore, the SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) approach was introduced to enhance model interpretability and quantitatively assess the influence of each input feature, revealing that mass loss rate and bar diameter are the dominant factors. This study effectively bridges the research gap between high-precision black-box algorithms and the need for physical interpretability in engineering. The results demonstrate that (1) the proposed XGBoost model significantly outperforms traditional empirical formulations, achieving a high coefficient of determination (R² = 0.893) and a much lower coefficient of variation (25.85%) on the testing set, and (2) the SHAP analysis reveals that the machine learning predictions are highly consistent with established physical mechanisms, successfully capturing the negative impact of splitting tensile stresses caused by rust expansion and the positive confinement effect of stirrups. Overall, the proposed models demonstrate superior accuracy, robustness, and generalization capability, providing an effective tool and theoretical basis for evaluating bond behavior and designing durable CRC structures with broad engineering applicability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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34 pages, 7599 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Crack Propagation Properties of Ordinary Plain Concrete Under Three-Point Loading

by Huating Chen, Jiapeng Song and Dewang Li

Materials 2025, 18(24), 5554; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18245554 - 11 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 875

Abstract

To obtain fatigue crack propagation properties of ordinary concrete commonly employed in bridge construction, 48 replicate single-edge notched beam specimens were fabricated using C50 plain concrete. Twelve of these were subjected to monotonic loading to determine their static capacity; the remaining 36 were fatigue-loaded with various combinations of maximum stress level and stress ratio under three-point bending. Visual observation, strain gauges, and the compliance method were used to determine the evolution of crack length during fatigue loading. The fatigue crack growth rates were then evaluated for each specimen using linear regression. This study shows that the fracture surface under fatigue loading exhibits greater zigzagging than under monotonic loading, with multiple microcracks coalescing. The elastic compliance method captures the three-stage development of fatigue crack well, and the derived equivalent crack size is consistently smaller than surface measurements. Significant scatter exists in the test data; however, the crack growth rate and stress intensity factor range follow a straight line on logarithmic scales, indicating that the Paris Law applies to plain concrete. The slope and intercept of C50 concrete, based on 27 fatigue-failed specimens, follow a Normal distribution, with means of 16.46 and −24.81 (in N-mm units), and coefficients of variation of 0.38 and −0.38, respectively. The corresponding mean and coefficient of variation for slope and intercept by the Forman Equation are 14.80 and 0.42 and −21.18 and −0.44, respectively. The fatigue crack in C50 concrete of this study shows a faster growth rate (46.7% larger slope) than that in lower-strength concrete in the literature. With further research needs identified, this study contributes to a better understanding of the fatigue crack growth properties of ordinary structural concrete, providing valuable information for fatigue assessment and service-life extension of existing concrete bridges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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25 pages, 8057 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Experimental and Numerical Investigations on the Influences of Target Porosity and w/c Ratio on Strength and Permeability of Pervious Concrete

by Fei Liu, Zhe Li, Bowen Liu, Zhuohui Yu, Zetong Li, Mengyuan Zhu, Yanjie Wang and Xizhou Ding

Materials 2025, 18(17), 3951; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18173951 - 22 Aug 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2438

Abstract

Pervious concrete is a promising sustainable pavement material for sponge city construction. The incorporation of Steel Slag Aggregate (SSA) as a substitute for natural aggregates has the double role of clean production with significant economic and environmental benefits. While the strength and permeability, known as two critical design parameters of pervious concrete, are closely linked to its porosity, there is limited research on the influence of the porosity on the mechanical properties of pervious concrete. In this paper, both experimental and numerical investigations were performed, focusing on the influence of target porosity on the strength and permeability of pervious concrete with and without SSA. Three different target porosities (15%, 20%, and 25%), five distinct water-to-cement (w/c) ratios (0.25, 0.28, 0.30, 0.33, and 0.35), and five SSA replacement ratios (0, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) were considered in this study. A two-dimensional (2D) finite-element (FE) model was developed, with which the failure mode and the strength variation of pervious concrete under different target porosities were analyzed and verified with the experimental results. The results showed that the porosity had a significant influence on both the strength and permeability of pervious concrete, while the influence of the w/c ratio is marginal. There existed an optimal w/c ratio of 0.3, for which pervious concrete with porosities of 15%, 20%, and 25% achieved 28-day compressive strengths of 27.8, 20.6, and 15.6 MPa and permeability coefficients of 0.32, 0.58, and 1.02 cm/s, respectively. Specifically, at the lowest porosity of 15%, the replacement of 100% SSA resulted in the largest improvement in the compressive strength up to 37.86%. Based on the regression analysis, a series of empirical equations correlating the porosity, strength and permeability of pervious concrete was formulated and validated against the experimental data. The findings presented herein are expected to provide references to the practical evaluation of the optimal mix proportion of previous concrete, considering specific and demanding engineering requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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21 pages, 3477 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Temperature-Control Admixtures on Shrinkage and Mechanical Properties of Fly Ash Concrete: Experiments and Modeling

by Yingda Zhang, Haiyang Li, Haojie Zhang, Xianliang Zhou, Ziyi Xu and Zihao Liu

Materials 2025, 18(16), 3757; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18163757 - 11 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1285

Abstract

The mitigation of early-age shrinkage and thermal cracking remains a pressing challenge in mass concrete structures. This study introduces a novel temperature-control admixture (TCA), formulated with gel-forming inorganic compounds, designed to suppress internal temperature rise while improving the mechanical stability of fly ash concrete. Four concrete mixes with TCA dosages of 0, 0.05, 0.10, and 0.15% were experimentally evaluated under controlled environmental conditions. Results show that the optimal dosage of 0.10% achieved a 27.3% reduction in shrinkage and a 12.2% increase in compressive strength at 28 days compared to the control. Furthermore, existing shrinkage models (Eurocode 2, fib Model Code 2010, AS 3600, Bazant B4) consistently overestimated shrinkage by up to 294% due to their inability to capture TCA-induced modifications in hydration and moisture transport. To address this, a modified prediction model incorporating admixture and fly ash–dependent correction factors was proposed, reducing the mean prediction error to just 10% and achieving a coefficient of variation as low as 0.08. This work provides a semi-empirical modeling approach that captures the influence of microencapsulated TCAs on concrete shrinkage and offers useful insights for the design and optimization of advanced concrete systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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15 pages, 2001 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Impact of Lithium Slag as an Alternative to Washed Sand on Mortar Properties

by Xianliang Zhou, Wei Dai, Xi Zhu and Xiaojun Zhou

Materials 2025, 18(15), 3490; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18153490 - 25 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1144

Abstract

Lithium slag (LS), a by-product of lithium extraction processes, poses a significant disposal challenge during the rapid development of new energy technologies. In this study, LS was used to replace partially washed sand in the process of mortar production to compensate for the content of stone powder in sand. Five mortar mixes containing varying proportions of LS were prepared, and the macroscopic performance was evaluated. A comprehensive microscopic analysis, including microstructure observations, hydration product identification, and pore structure analysis, was conducted. The impact of LS on the chloride ion permeability of mortar was also investigated in this study. The results indicate that an increase in LS content gradually reduces the workability of the mortar, with a 39.29% decrease in fluidity when 40% of the sand is replaced with LS. Moreover, the compressive and flexural strengths of the mortar initially increase and then decrease with higher LS content. Microscopic tests reveal that 20% LS substitution significantly optimizes the pore structure of the mortar, resulting in a lower chloride ion permeability coefficient. Consequently, 20% LS substitution is recommended as the optimal dosage for use as fine aggregate in mortar. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cracking Risks in Blended Cement-Based Concrete: Mechanisms, Evaluation and Control)

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