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Systems and Materials for Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Green Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 September 2025 | Viewed by 632

Special Issue Editors


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Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Via Luigi Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
Interests: eutectic solvents; recycling lithium-ion batteries; design of experiments; extraction procedures; sustainability assessment
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Guest Editor
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Brescia, via Branze 38, 25123 Brescia, Italy
Interests: exhausted lithium-ion battery; metals recovery; waste management; air pollution; adsorption; innovative porous material; sustainability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Exponential increases in the demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), which follow the growth of the number of electronic devices and electric vehicles produced, pose serious environmental issues related to the consumption of critical raw materials (such as Li, Co, Ni, and Mn) and the disposal of spent LIBs. In this context, research on alternatives to well-assessed (and environmentally detrimental) pyro- and hydrometallurgy has multiplied in recent years. This Special Issue aims to collect the latest findings about new systems or materials that can valorize spent LIBs through their reuse or through the recovery of the precious elements contained in industrial black mass (BM); these elements are mainly made of Li metal oxides and graphite.  

The main topics include the following:

- The reuse of partially spent LIBs.

- The extraction of critical raw materials from spent LIBs.

- The characterization of black masses (BMs).

- Pyrometallurgy for the valorization of spent LIBs.

- Hydro/solvometallurgy for the valorization of spent LIBs.

Dr. Alberto Mannu
Dr. Alessandra Zanoletti
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • spent lithium-ion batteries
  • black mass
  • metal extraction
  • hydrometallurgy
  • solvometallurgy
  • pyrometallurgy
  • circular economy

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Published Papers (1 paper)

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Review

19 pages, 289 KiB  
Review
Solvometallurgy as Alternative to Pyro- and Hydrometallurgy for Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, and Manganese Extraction from Black Mass Processing: State of the Art
by Alessandra Zanoletti, Alberto Mannu and Antonella Cornelio
Materials 2025, 18(12), 2761; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18122761 - 12 Jun 2025
Viewed by 365
Abstract
The rapid growth in lithium-ion battery (LIB) demand has underscored the urgent need for sustainable recycling methods to recover critical metals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. Traditional pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical approaches often suffer from high energy consumption, environmental impact, and limited [...] Read more.
The rapid growth in lithium-ion battery (LIB) demand has underscored the urgent need for sustainable recycling methods to recover critical metals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. Traditional pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical approaches often suffer from high energy consumption, environmental impact, and limited metal selectivity. As an emerging alternative, solvometallurgy, and in particular the use of low-melting mixtures solvents, including deep eutectic solvents, offers a low-temperature, tunable, and potentially more environmentally compatible pathway for black mass processing. This review presents a comprehensive assessment of the recent advances (2020–2025) in the application of LoMMSs for metal recovery from LCO and NCM cathodes, analyzing 71 reported systems across binary, ternary, hydrated, and non-ChCl-based solvent families. Extraction efficiencies, reaction kinetics, coordination mechanisms, and solvent recyclability are critically evaluated, highlighting how solvent structure influences performance and selectivity. Particular attention is given to the challenges of lithium recovery, solvent degradation, and environmental trade-offs such as energy usage, waste generation, and chemical stability. A comparative synthesis identifies the most promising systems based on their mechanistic behavior and industrial relevance. The future outlook emphasizes the need for greener formulations, enhanced lithium selectivity, and life-cycle integration to support circular economy goals in battery recycling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systems and Materials for Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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