Materials

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19 pages, 14846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Heating Rate on the Microstructure Evolution and Hardness of Heterogeneous Manganese Steel

by Wubin Ren, Peiyu Zhao, Menghu Wang, Shuai Tong, Xiaokai Liang, Xinjun Sun and Huibin Wu

Materials 2024, 17(21), 5321; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17215321 - 31 Oct 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 802

The use of a rapid heating method to achieve heterogeneity of Mn in medium-manganese steel and improve its comprehensive performance has been widely studied and these techniques have been widely applied. However, the heating rate (from α to γ) has not received sufficient [...] Read more.

The use of a rapid heating method to achieve heterogeneity of Mn in medium-manganese steel and improve its comprehensive performance has been widely studied and these techniques have been widely applied. However, the heating rate (from α to γ) has not received sufficient attention with respect to its microstructure-evolution mechanism. In this study, the effect of heating rate on the microstructure evolution and hardness of heterogeneous medium-manganese steel was investigated by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and DICTRA simulation. The results showed that the Mn distribution was heterogeneous in the initial microstructure of pearlite due to strong partitioning of Mn between ferrite and cementite. At low heating rates (<10 °C/s), the heterogeneity of Mn distribution was diminished to some extent due to the long-distance diffusion of Mn in high-temperature austenite. Contrastingly, at high heating rates, the initial heterogeneity of the Mn element could be largely preserved due to insufficient diffusion of Mn, which resulted in more ghost pearlite (GP: pearlite-like microstructure with film martensite/RA). Moreover, the high heating rate not only refines the prior austenite grain but also increases the total RA content, which is mainly composed of additional film RA. As the heating rate increases, the hardness gradually increases from 628.1 HV to 663.3 HV, due to grain refinement and increased dislocation density. Dynamic simulations have also demonstrated a strong correlation between this interesting microstructure and the non-equilibrium diffusion of Mn. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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25 pages, 14711 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Thermomechanical Conditions on the Hot Ductility of Continuously Cast Microalloyed Steels

by Saham Sadat Sharifi, Saeid Bakhtiari, Esmaeil Shahryari, Christof Sommitsch and Maria Cecilia Poletti

Materials 2024, 17(18), 4551; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17184551 - 16 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1402

Abstract

Continuous casting is the most common method for producing steel into semi-finished shapes like billets or slabs. Throughout this process, steel experiences mechanical and thermal stresses, which influence its mechanical properties. During continuous casting, decreased formability in steel components leads to crack formation [...] Read more.

Continuous casting is the most common method for producing steel into semi-finished shapes like billets or slabs. Throughout this process, steel experiences mechanical and thermal stresses, which influence its mechanical properties. During continuous casting, decreased formability in steel components leads to crack formation and failure. One reason for this phenomenon is the appearance of the soft ferrite phase during cooling. However, it is unclear under which conditions this ferrite is detrimental to the formability. In the present research, we investigated what microstructural changes decrease the formability of microalloyed steels during continuous casting. We studied the hot compression behaviour of microalloyed steel over temperatures ranging from 650 °C to 1100 °C and strain rates of 0.1

s^{- 1}

to 0.001

s^{- 1}

using a Gleeble 3800^® (Dynamic Systems Inc, Poestenkill, NY, USA) device. We examined microstructural changes at various deformation conditions using microscopy. Furthermore, we implemented a physically-based model to describe the deformation of austenite and ferrite. The model describes the work hardening and dynamic restoration mechanisms, i.e., discontinuous dynamic recrystallisation in austenite and dynamic recovery in ferrite and austenite. The model considers the stress, strain, and strain rate distribution between phases by describing the dynamic phase transformation during the deformation in iso-work conditions. Increasing the strain rate below the transformation temperature improves hot ductility by reducing dynamic recovery and strain concentration in ferrite. Due to limited grain boundary sliding, the hot ductility improves at lower temperatures (<750 °C). In the single-phase domain, dynamic recrystallisation improves the hot ductility provided that fracture occurs at strains in which dynamic recrystallisation advances. However, at very low strain rates, the ductility decreases due to prolonged time for grain boundary sliding and crack propagation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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11 pages, 4999 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of High-Temperature Deformation Twinning on the Work Hardening Behavior of Fe-38Mn Alloy during Hot Shear-Compression Deformation

by Deli Sang, Xiaoli Xin, Zikang Zhai, Ruidong Fu, Yijun Li and Lei Jing

Materials 2024, 17(15), 3641; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17153641 - 24 Jul 2024

Viewed by 705

Abstract

The effect of high-temperature deformation twinning on the work hardening behaviors of Fe-38Mn alloy during hot shear-compression deformation was investigated. The discovery of micro-shear bands and deformation twinning is significant for continuous work hardening, and this represents an important step toward gaining a [...] Read more.

The effect of high-temperature deformation twinning on the work hardening behaviors of Fe-38Mn alloy during hot shear-compression deformation was investigated. The discovery of micro-shear bands and deformation twinning is significant for continuous work hardening, and this represents an important step toward gaining a complete understanding of the effect of deformation twinning on work hardening behaviors. Deformation twinning is widely acknowledged to accommodate plastic strain under cold deformation, even under severe plastic deformation. At present, the equivalent stress vs. strain curves for hot shear-compression deformation of Fe-38Mn alloy exhibit the characteristics of continuous work hardening. In addition, continuous work hardening is classified into five stages when considering high-temperature deformation twinning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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13 pages, 9427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning-Aided Analysis of the Rolling and Recrystallization Textures of Pure Iron with Different Cold Reduction Ratios and Cold-Rolling Directions

by Takumi Sumida, Keiya Sugiura, Toshio Ogawa, Ta-Te Chen, Fei Sun, Yoshitaka Adachi, Atsushi Yamaguchi and Yukihiro Matsubara

Materials 2024, 17(14), 3402; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17143402 - 10 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1139

Abstract

We performed a machine learning-aided analysis of the rolling and recrystallization textures in pure iron with different cold reduction ratios and cold-rolling directions. Five types of specimens with different cold reduction ratios and cold-rolling directions were prepared. The effect of two-way cold-rolling on [...] Read more.

We performed a machine learning-aided analysis of the rolling and recrystallization textures in pure iron with different cold reduction ratios and cold-rolling directions. Five types of specimens with different cold reduction ratios and cold-rolling directions were prepared. The effect of two-way cold-rolling on the rolling texture was small at cold reduction ratios different from 60%. The cold reduction ratio in each stage hardly affected the texture evolution during cold-rolling and subsequent short-term annealing. In the case of long-term annealing, although abnormal grain growth occurred, the crystal orientation of the grains varied. Moreover, the direction of cold-rolling in each stage also hardly affected the texture evolution during cold-rolling and subsequent short-term annealing. During long-term annealing, sheets with the same cold-rolling direction in the as-received state and in the first stage showed the texture evolution of conventional one-way cold-rolled pure iron. Additionally, we conducted a machine learning-aided analysis of rolling and recrystallization textures. Using cold-rolling and annealing conditions as the input data and the degree of Goss orientation development as the output data, we constructed high-accuracy regression models using artificial neural networks and XGBoost. We also revealed that the annealing temperature is the dominant factor in the nucleation of Goss grains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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12 pages, 9391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Heat Treatment on the Microstructure and Properties of a Cu-Bearing Ultra-Low Carbon Steel

by Weina Zhang, Zhanjie Gao, Huimin Zhang, Hao Wei, Zejin Chen, Wenying Xue and Zhenyu Liu

Materials 2024, 17(12), 3031; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17123031 - 20 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1074

Abstract

This study reveals the relationship between the Cu precipitates and mechanical properties of a Cu-baring ultra-low carbon steel after two-phase zone quenching and tempering at 923 K for 0.5–2.5 h. The tensile and microstructural properties were investigated as a function of heat treatment [...] Read more.

This study reveals the relationship between the Cu precipitates and mechanical properties of a Cu-baring ultra-low carbon steel after two-phase zone quenching and tempering at 923 K for 0.5–2.5 h. The tensile and microstructural properties were investigated as a function of heat treatment time. The contribution of the precipitation-strengthening mechanism to yield strength was calculated. The size, morphology, and distribution of the precipitated particles were observed using TEM. As the heat treatment time increased, the strength gradually decreased and then remained stable, and the elongation gradually increased and then remained stable. Additionally, the contributions of each strengthening mechanism to the yield strength under different heat treatments were 117, 107, 102, and 89 MPa, respectively. The size and quantity of the precipitates increased with the increase in heat treatment time. After tempering for more than 2 h, the precipitates continued to coarsen, but their quantity decreased. The precipitated Cu had a 3R structure with a length of approximately 17.1 nm and a width of approximately 9.7 nm, with no twinning inside. The stacking order was ABC/ABC. The stable Cu precipitation structure was FCC, maintaining a K-S orientation relationship

(1 \bar{1} 1)

_{FCC Cu} //(0 1 1) _α,

[\bar{1} 10]

_{FCC Cu}//

[1 \bar{1} 1

] _α. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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11 pages, 14376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Oxidant Concentration on the Oxide Layer Thickness of 304 Stainless Steel

by Kerong Wang, Haixu Liu, Ning Liu, Xiaoming Chen and Jiapeng Chen

Materials 2024, 17(12), 2816; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17122816 - 10 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1375

Abstract

Ultra-thin 304 stainless steel can be used to flexibly display substrates after they have been subjected to chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). The thickness of the chemical oxide layer directly affects the polishing efficiency and surface quality of 304 stainless steel. In the study [...] Read more.

Ultra-thin 304 stainless steel can be used to flexibly display substrates after they have been subjected to chemical mechanical polishing (CMP). The thickness of the chemical oxide layer directly affects the polishing efficiency and surface quality of 304 stainless steel. In the study presented in the following paper, the thickness variation of the chemical oxide layer of 304 stainless steel was analyzed following electrochemical corrosion under different oxidant concentration conditions. Furthermore, the impact of the oxidant concentration on the grooves, chips, and scratch depth–displacement–load curves was investigated during a nano-scratching experiment. Through this process, we were able to reveal the chemical reaction mechanism between 304 stainless steel materials and oxidizers. The corrosion rate was found to be faster at 8% oxidant content. The maximum values of the scratch depth and elastic–plastic critical load were determined to be 2153 nm and 58.47 mN, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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17 pages, 8565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intercritically Annealed Medium-Manganese Steel: Insights into Microstructural and Microtextural Evolution, Strain Distribution, and Grain Boundary Characteristics

by Sudipta Mohapatra, Kyeong-Cheol Baek and Min-Suk Oh

Materials 2024, 17(11), 2757; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112757 - 5 Jun 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1925

Abstract

Aluminum-incorporated medium-manganese steel (MMnS) has potential for lightweight transport applications owing to its impressive mechanical properties. Increasing the austenite volume fraction and making microstructural changes are key to manufacturing MMnS. However, the grain boundary character and strain distribution of intercritically annealed low-density MMnS [...] Read more.

Aluminum-incorporated medium-manganese steel (MMnS) has potential for lightweight transport applications owing to its impressive mechanical properties. Increasing the austenite volume fraction and making microstructural changes are key to manufacturing MMnS. However, the grain boundary character and strain distribution of intercritically annealed low-density MMnS have not been extensively scrutinized, and the effects of crystallographic texture orientation on tensile properties remain ambiguous. Therefore, in this study, the microstructure, microtexture, strain distribution, and grain boundary characteristics of a hot-rolled medium-Mn steel (Fe–0.2 C–4.3 Al–9.4 Mn (wt%)) were investigated after intercritical annealing (IA) at 750, 800, or 850 °C for 1 h. The results show that the 800 °C annealed sample exhibited the highest austenite volume fraction among the specimens (60%). The duplex microstructure comprised lath-type γ-austenite, fine α-ferrite, and coarse δ-ferrite. As the IA temperature increased, the body-centered cubic phase orientation shifted from <001> to <111>. At higher temperatures, the face-centered cubic phase was oriented in directions ranging from <101> to <111>, and the sums of the fractions of high-angle grain boundaries and coincidence–site–lattice special boundaries were significantly increased. The 800 °C annealed sample with a high austenite content and strong γ-fiber {111}//RD orientation demonstrated a noteworthy tensile strength (1095 MPa) and tensile elongation (30%). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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16 pages, 9313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Cyclic Ice Plug Deformation on Microstructure and Mechanical Behaviors of Nuclear-Grade Low-Carbon Tubular Steel

by Minglei Hu, Wei Zhang, Ke Xu, Bin Hu, Dongsheng Li, Lan Wang, Rencai Liu and Xiaohua Zhao

Materials 2024, 17(11), 2642; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17112642 - 30 May 2024

Viewed by 838

Abstract

This study subjected nuclear-grade 20# pipeline steel to cyclic freeze–thaw ice plugging tests, simulating the plastic deformation experienced by pipes during ice plug removal procedures. Subsequently, the dislocation morphology and mechanical properties of the specimens post cyclic ice plugging were examined. The cyclic [...] Read more.

This study subjected nuclear-grade 20# pipeline steel to cyclic freeze–thaw ice plugging tests, simulating the plastic deformation experienced by pipes during ice plug removal procedures. Subsequently, the dislocation morphology and mechanical properties of the specimens post cyclic ice plugging were examined. The cyclic ice plugging process led to an increase in the dislocation density within the specimens. After 20 and 40 cycles of ice plugging, the internal dislocation structures evolved from individual dislocation lines and dislocation tangles to high-density dislocation walls and dislocation cells. These high-density dislocation walls and cells hindered dislocation motion, giving rise to strain hardening phenomena, thereby resulting in increased strength and hardness of the specimens with an increasing number of ice plugging cycles. In addition, a large stress field was generated around the dislocation buildup, which reduced the pipe material’s plastic toughness. The findings elucidate the effects of cyclic ice plugging on the microstructure and properties of nuclear-grade 20# pipeline steel, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for the safe and stable application of ice plugging technology in nuclear piping systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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17 pages, 7779 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Change in Hydrogen Trapping Characteristics and Influence on Hydrogen Embrittlement Sensitivity in a Medium-Carbon, High-Strength Steel: The Effects of Heat Treatments

by Zhi Tong, Hantong Wang, Wenyue Zheng and Hongyu Zhou

Materials 2024, 17(8), 1854; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17081854 - 17 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1628

Abstract

Medium-carbon, high-strength steels are widely used in the field of hydrogen energy because of their good mechanical properties, and they can be readily tailored by heat treatment processes such as the normalizing–tempering (N&T) and quenching–tempering (Q&T) methods. The hydrogen embrittlement (HE) susceptibility of [...] Read more.

Medium-carbon, high-strength steels are widely used in the field of hydrogen energy because of their good mechanical properties, and they can be readily tailored by heat treatment processes such as the normalizing–tempering (N&T) and quenching–tempering (Q&T) methods. The hydrogen embrittlement (HE) susceptibility of a medium-carbon, high-strength steel was investigated utilizing microstructural characterization with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A study was also conducted on the steel’s hydrogen transport behavior as affected by the N&T and Q&T treatments. The steel contained more hydrogen traps, such as dislocations, grain boundaries, lath boundaries, and carbide interfaces, after the Q&T process, which was associated with a lower HE sensitivity when comparing the two treatments. In comparison, the N&T process produced larger-size and lesser-density carbides distributed along the grain boundaries, and this resulted in a relatively higher HE susceptibility, as revealed by the slow-strain-rate tensile (SSRT) tests of the hydrogen-charged steels and by the fractographic study of the fracture surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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19 pages, 4992 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing/Improving Forming Limit Curve and Fracture Height Predictions in the Single-Point Incremental Forming of Al1050 Sheet Material

by Trung-Kien Hoang, The-Thanh Luyen and Duc-Toan Nguyen

Materials 2023, 16(23), 7266; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16237266 - 21 Nov 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2025

Abstract

Single-point incremental forming (SPIF) has emerged as a cost-effective and rapid manufacturing method, especially suitable for small-batch production due to its minimal reliance on molds, swift production, and affordability. Nonetheless, SPIF’s effectiveness is closely tied to the specific characteristics of the employed sheet [...] Read more.

Single-point incremental forming (SPIF) has emerged as a cost-effective and rapid manufacturing method, especially suitable for small-batch production due to its minimal reliance on molds, swift production, and affordability. Nonetheless, SPIF’s effectiveness is closely tied to the specific characteristics of the employed sheet materials and the intricacies of the desired shapes. Immediate experimentation with SPIF often leads to numerous product defects. Therefore, the pre-emptive use of numerical simulations to predict these defects is of paramount importance. In this study, we focus on the critical role of the forming limit curve (FLC) in SPIF simulations, specifically in anticipating product fractures. To facilitate this, we first construct the forming limit curve for Al1050 sheet material, leveraging the modified maximum force criterion (MMFC). This criterion, well-established in the field, derives FLCs based on the theory of hardening laws in sheet metal yield curves. In conjunction with the MMFC, we introduce a graphical approach that simplifies the prediction of forming limit curves at fracture (FLCF). Within the context of the SPIF method, FLCF is established through both uniaxial tensile deformation (U.T) and simultaneous uniform tensile deformation in bi-axial tensile (B.T). Subsequently, the FLCF predictions are applied in simulations and experiments focused on forming truncated cone parts. Notably, a substantial deviation in fracture height, amounting to 15.97%, is observed between simulated and experimental samples. To enhance FLCF prediction accuracy in SPIF, we propose a novel method based on simulations of truncated cone parts with variable tool radii. A FLCF is then constructed by determining major/minor strains in simulated samples. To ascertain the validity of this enhanced FLCF model, our study includes simulations and tests of truncated cone samples with varying wall angles, revealing a substantial alignment in fracture height between corresponding samples. This research contributes to the advancement of SPIF by enhancing our ability to predict and mitigate product defects, ultimately expanding the applicability of SPIF in diverse industrial contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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15 pages, 12143 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Processing of Bimetallic Inconel 625-16Mo3 Steel Tube via Supercritical Bend: Study of the Mechanical Properties and Structure

by Igor Barenyi, Martin Slany, Karel Kouril, Jan Zouhar, Stepan Kolomy, Josef Sedlak and Jozef Majerik

Materials 2023, 16(20), 6796; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16206796 - 21 Oct 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1536

Abstract

Incineration is currently the standard way of disposing of municipal waste. It uses components protected by high-temperature-resistant layers of materials, such as Inconel alloys. Therefore, the objective of the current paper is to study the mechanical properties and structure of a bimetallic Inconel [...] Read more.

Incineration is currently the standard way of disposing of municipal waste. It uses components protected by high-temperature-resistant layers of materials, such as Inconel alloys. Therefore, the objective of the current paper is to study the mechanical properties and structure of a bimetallic Inconel 625-16Mo3 steel tube. The Inconel 625 layer was 3.5 mm thick and was applied to the surface of the tube with a wall thickness of 7 mm via the cold metal transfer method. The bimetallic tube was bent using a supercritical bend (d ≤ 0.7D). This paper is focused on the investigation of the material changes in the Inconel 625 layer areas influenced by the maximum tensile and compressive stresses after the bend. The change in layer thickness after the bend was evaluated and compared to the non-deformed tube. In addition, the local mechanical properties (nanohardness, Young modulus) across the indicated interfacial areas using quasistatic nanoindentation were investigated. Subsequently, a thorough microstructure observation was carried out in areas with maximum tensile and compressive stresses to determine changes in the morphology and size of dendrites related to the effect of tensile or compressive stresses induced by bending. It was found that the grain featured a stretched secondary dendrite axis in the area of tensile stress, but compressive stress imparted a prolongation of the primary dendrite axis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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22 pages, 5316 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diffusion of Alloying Cobalt Oxide (II, III) into Electrical Steel

by Elmazeg Elgamli and Fatih Anayi

Materials 2023, 16(18), 6315; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16186315 - 20 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1793

Abstract

This paper aims to reduce power loss in electrical steel by improving its surface resistivity. The proposed approach involves introducing additional alloying elements through diffusion once the steel sheet reaches the desired thickness. Various effective techniques have been suggested and tested to enhance [...] Read more.

This paper aims to reduce power loss in electrical steel by improving its surface resistivity. The proposed approach involves introducing additional alloying elements through diffusion once the steel sheet reaches the desired thickness. Various effective techniques have been suggested and tested to enhance the resistivity of the strip. The method entails creating a paste by combining powdered diffusing elements with specific solutions, which are then applied to the steel’s surface. After firing the sample, a successful transfer of certain elements to the steel surface is achieved. The amount and distribution of these elements can be controlled by adjusting the paste composition, modifying the firing parameters, and employing subsequent annealing procedures. This study specifically investigates the effectiveness of incorporating cobalt oxide (II, III) into non-oriented silicon iron to mitigate power loss. The experimental samples consist of non-oriented electrical steels with a composition of 2.4 wt% Si-Fe and dimensions of 0.305 mm × 300 mm × 30 mm. Power loss and permeability measurements are conducted using a single strip tester (SST) within a magnetic field range of 0.5 T to 1.7 T. These measurements are performed using an AC magnetic properties measurement system under controlled sinusoidal conditions at various frequencies. The research explores the impact of cobalt oxide (II, III) addition, observing successful diffusion into the steel through the utilization of a paste based on sodium silicate solution. This treatment results in a significant reduction in power loss in the non-oriented material, with power loss reductions of 14% at 400 Hz and 23% at 1 kHz attributed to the elimination of a porous layer containing a high concentration of the diffusing element. The formation of porosity in the cobalt addition was found to be particularly sensitive to firing temperature near the melting point. The diffusion process was examined through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The results demonstrate improved power losses in the coated samples compared with the uncoated ones. In conclusion, this study establishes that the properties of non-oriented electrical steels can be enhanced through a safer process compared with the methods employed by previous researchers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Steel Materials: Recrystallization, Phase Transformation and Microstructure Analysis)

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