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Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition)

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A Special Issue of Land (ISSN 2073-445X) belonging to the section "Landscape Ecology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 5925

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Editors

Dr. Shicheng Li

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Guest Editor

School of Public Administration, Univeristy of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: land use and land cover change; Tibetan Plateau; ecosystem services; protected areas
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Lanhui Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Computer and Information Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen 361024, China
Interests: land cover change; human activity; climate change; remote sensing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Mingjie Song

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

College of Public Administration, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430074, China
Interests: landscape planning; spatial analysis; ecosystem services; ecosystem management for poverty alleviation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

There are many eco-sensitive areas around the world, covering a sizeable portion of the world’s terrestrial surface. Examples include mountain regions (e.g., the Tibetan Plateau) and transitional zones (e.g., farming–pastoral zones). These regions provide products and services to large amounts, if not all, of the world's population, with benefits including freshwater, food, and recreation, etc. However, due to excessive human land use activities and climate change, these regions are currently facing numerous challenges that affect the structure, quality, and ability of these ecosystems to provide services and products. In response to these challenges, many policies have been implemented, including designating protected land areas and providing ecological compensation, in order to balance the relationship between ecological protection and socio-economic development. These interventions must be supported by the government at different levels to ensure that these ecosystems are able to sustainably provide their services. Because of this, studies related to ecosystem services should play an essential role in managing and conserving eco-sensitive areas and protected land. However, it is still unclear how studies on ecosystem services can support the conservation of biodiversity under present conditions and in future scenarios.

This Special Issue aims to address critical knowledge gaps in our basic understanding of land use/cover change, ecosystem services, how they have changed in eco-sensitive areas, and societal trends in and outside of eco-sensitive areas in terms of dealing with future challenges. A particular focus is placed on studies on protected land and research into the management and preservation of biodiversity and landscapes in these areas.

For this Special Issue of Land, we invite authors to submit theoretical considerations and descriptions of practical case studies, discussing ecosystem services and protected lands in eco-sensitive areas. Both review and research articles are welcome. Potential topics include, but are not limited to, the following areas:

The mapping, quantification, and assessment of ecosystem services and their dynamics;
The assessment of the effectiveness of protected lands after protection and restoration;
The optimization of the layout of protected lands to enhance the delivery of ecosystem services;
The identification of eco-sensitive areas from the perspective of ecosystem services and remote sensing;
Land use and the trade-offs of ecosystem services;
The identification of external threats to eco-sensitive areas.

Dr. Shicheng Li
Dr. Lanhui Li
Dr. Mingjie Song
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Land is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

ecosystem services
protected lands
eco-sensitive areas
Tibetan Plateau
land use/cover change
ecological compensation
anthropogenic activities
ecosystem restoration
ecosystem services trade-off

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Related Special Issue

Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Second Edition) in Land (14 articles)

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 14310 KB

Open AccessArticle

How Do Human Land Use Changes and Ecological Restoration Drive Ecological–Economic–Social Coupling Coordination Across the Yellow River Basin in China?

by Jian Tao, Yiting Liu, Hong Cai, Mingcong Yan, Sheng Zhang and Guangshuai Zhao

Land 2026, 15(9), 1729; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15091729 - 16 Sep 2026

Viewed by 180

Abstract

Conflicts between intense human activity and fragile ecosystem protection have and will continue to affect the ecological–economic–social complex system across the Yellow River Basin. An enhanced understanding of the effects of human land use changes and ecological restoration on the coupling coordination of this system is urgently needed to promote the basin’s sustainable development. Here, we integrated remote sensing data with county-level panel data from 2001 to 2020 to assess the coupling coordination degree at a fine spatial resolution. We also investigated the spatial heterogeneity of the effects of changes in urbanization rate, cropland area, and vegetation area on changes in the coupling coordination degree. We found that the coupling coordination degree was low overall and exhibited High–High clustering in the lower reaches, which have the most hydrothermal resources and highest socio-economic development level. Since 2001, the coupling coordination degree has exhibited a significant increasing trend and shows High–High clustering in the agro-pastoral ecotone of the Loess Plateau, which is the core area of the Grain for Green Program. The urbanization rate should be regulated within a reasonable range to ensure sufficient preservation of cropland and vegetation areas to sustain coupling coordination in the upper and middle reaches. Increasing or maintaining stable cropland and vegetation areas could support urban expansion by safeguarding food security and the provision of ecosystem services, thereby strengthening coupling coordination. Ecological restoration played a dominant role in promoting coordinated development in the upper and middle reaches. The continued implementation of ecological protection and restoration projects has enhanced ecosystem services and the well-being of rural residents, promoting sustainable development. These findings will improve the governance of human land use activity and ecological project implementation to promote sustainable development in the study area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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36 pages, 27068 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multiscale Ecosystem Services Supply–Demand Assessment in Ghana Using Improved Population Representation

by Yan Jin, Mei Yang, Matthieu Charpe and Yong Ge

Land 2026, 15(9), 1675; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15091675 - 10 Sep 2026

Viewed by 229

Abstract

Ecosystem service supply–demand (ESSD) assessments depend heavily on the spatial representation of human demand. However, coarse population datasets may overlook local variations, thereby affecting the identification of supply–demand imbalances. This study develops a multiscale ESSD assessment framework for Ghana that integrates improved population representation and ecosystem service indicators. Census-based population data for 2021 were downscaled to 0.05°, 0.01° and 0.005° resolutions. When aggregated to the district level and compared with the corresponding census totals, the SRF estimates demonstrate lower %RMSE than LandScan and WorldPop, with relative reductions of 21.02% and more than 59%, respectively. Spatial consistency assessment further showed a strong positive association between population density and built-up land proportion. Four ecosystem services, including food supply, water yield, carbon sequestration, and soil conservation, were evaluated using supply-demand ratios, spatial clustering analysis, and SHAP-based interpretation across multiple spatial scales. The results demonstrate that finer population representation captures more detailed ESSD heterogeneity, especially in urban and peri-urban areas. Water-yield imbalance exhibited marked spatial heterogeneity across Ghana, whereas food and carbon imbalances were most evident in coastal and highly urbanized regions. These findings highlight the importance of population spatialization in multiscale ESSD assessment and provide insights into spatially targeted land management in rapidly urbanizing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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19 pages, 4742 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping High-Altitude Socio-Ecological Assets: Carbon Storage and Habitat Provision Dynamics in the Páramo of Cajas National Park, Ecuador

by Diego Portalanza, Yoansy Garcia, Klever A. Cevallos-Valdez, Javier Del-Cioppo Morstadt, Carlos Ortega and Fanny Rodriguez-Jarama

Land 2026, 15(8), 1450; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15081450 - 12 Aug 2026

Viewed by 519

Abstract

High-altitude Andean páramo ecosystems are critical socio-ecological assets that provide key regulating and supporting services, yet they remain highly vulnerable to climate change and anthropogenic pressures. Understanding these services requires frameworks that integrate biophysical capacity with social valuation and demographic accessibility. In this study, we mapped and assessed belowground and aboveground carbon storage and species habitat provision across the altitudinal gradient (3160–4400 m.a.s.l.) of Cajas National Park (PNC), Ecuador, using a spatially explicit socio-ecological approach. Carbon stocks were modeled following The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2019 Refined Guidelines, combining reference soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks with aboveground biomass coefficients. Habitat provision was modeled through a multi-factor suitability index integrating Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), elevation, water bodies, and interpolated climate surfaces. Biophysical supplies were weighted via a Delphi-based expert consultation and integrated with demographic census data (173,672 inhabitants in four adjacent parishes) to estimate actual service capture and effective benefits. Total carbon stocks in PNC were estimated at 1.49 million Mg C, with volcanic Andisols acting as the primary reservoir (97.5% of the total stock). Habitat suitability was highly heterogeneous, with critical refuge patches clustered around the park’s lacustric network and stable microclimatic zones. Socio-ecological mapping revealed that the eastern boundary of the park represents the highest hotspot of effective benefit capture, directly supplying vital water regulation and cultural services to the peri-urban populations of Sayausí and Baños. These results demonstrate the utility of integrating standard IPCC guidelines with the ECOSER protocol, offering a repeatable and transparent framework to guide spatial conservation planning and sustainable land-use zoning in vulnerable high-altitude protected areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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26 pages, 4595 KB

Open AccessArticle

Risk-Informed Ecological Network Optimization in a Semi-Arid Coal Mining Landscape

by Wenting Zhang, Pinlin Li, Jiaxian Jiang and Di Wang

Land 2026, 15(8), 1427; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15081427 - 7 Aug 2026

Viewed by 383

Abstract

Coal mining landscapes require restoration strategies that account not only for where ecological risk is concentrated but also for how risk constrains landscape connectivity. However, landscape ecological risk assessment is still commonly used as a zoning tool, with weak links to resistance surface parameterization and node-level restoration. Using the Shenmu coal mining area in northern China as a case study, we developed a risk-informed ecological network framework based on multi-source spatial data from 1995 to 2020. The framework combined landscape ecological risk assessment, GeoDetector-based driver analysis, ecological source screening, resistance surface construction, minimum cumulative resistance modeling, a gravity model, and circuit theory-based node diagnosis. Landscape dominance showed the highest explanatory power within the tested factor set (q = 0.06083), followed by land use type, water body proximity, and landscape fragmentation, while most factor interactions showed bivariate or nonlinear enhancement. Risk zoning delineated ecological conservation (467.62 km²), enhancement (1434.86 km²), and restoration areas (2566.49 km²). The framework identified 10 ecological sources; 18 potential corridors with a total length of 213.18 km; and 89 key nodes, including 52 pinch points, 4 barrier points, and 33 fracture points. The main contribution of this framework lies not in combining established ecological network tools, but in transferring ecological risk information into resistance surface parameterization and linking different types of critical nodes to differentiated restoration priorities. These outputs should be interpreted as model-based structural and potential functional connectivity priorities, rather than as direct evidence of realized species movement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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31 pages, 29448 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Evolution and Multi-Scenario Simulation of Carbon Storage on the Loess Plateau Based on PLUS-InVEST and XGBoost-SHAP

by Xu Bi, Kailong Shi, Liqing Wu, Yushuo Zhang, Tao Lang and Yongyong Fu

Land 2026, 15(6), 1088; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15061088 - 19 Jun 2026

Viewed by 483

Abstract

Accurate assessment of carbon storage dynamics and their driving factors is important for ecological sustainability and land management on the Loess Plateau under China’s dual carbon goals. In this study, the InVEST and PLUS models were integrated to evaluate carbon storage changes from 2000 to 2020 and simulate future carbon storage patterns for 2030 under four development scenarios, including natural development (ND), rapid development (RD), cropland protection (CP), and ecological protection (EP). In addition, the XGBoost-SHAP framework was employed to identify the dominant drivers and nonlinear response relationships controlling spatial variation in carbon storage. During 2000–2020, ecosystem carbon storage across the Loess Plateau generally increased, rising from 5.780 Pg to 5.893 Pg. Spatially, carbon storage displayed a pronounced pattern characterized by higher levels in the southeast and lower levels in the northwest, aligning with forest–grassland restoration belts. Scenario simulations showed that EP produced the largest carbon storage gain, with total carbon storage projected to reach 5.962 Pg in 2030. In contrast, RD reduced carbon storage to 5.858 Pg because of intensive construction land expansion. XGBoost-SHAP results identified net primary productivity (NPP) as the most influential factor controlling spatial variation in carbon storage, accounting for 57.3% of the total explanatory importance, whereas soil erosion (SE) exhibited a strong negative effect on carbon storage. Population density (POPD) also exerted a negative effect, whereas gross domestic product (GDP) showed positive contributions in economically developed counties. These findings enhance understanding of the spatial response characteristics of carbon storage under environmental gradients and human disturbance across the Loess Plateau. They further provide scientific support for differentiated ecological management and regionally adapted carbon mitigation planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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19 pages, 2353 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Alpine Protected Areas: An Evaluation of the Three-River-Source Nature Reserve Through Human Footprint Measurements

by Shicheng Li, Qiuyan Liang, Fei Xu and Jiangmin Li

Land 2026, 15(3), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15030475 - 16 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 815

Abstract

Protected areas play a critical role in conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services, yet their effectiveness in mitigating anthropogenic pressures, particularly in fragile alpine ecosystems like the Three-River-Source region of the Qinghai Plateau—a vital water tower for Asia—requires long-term and rigorous assessment. This study evaluates the effectiveness of the Three-River-Source Nature Reserve by analyzing spatiotemporal changes in the human footprint from 2000 to 2024. Utilizing a globally consistent human footprint dataset refined with high-resolution grazing intensity data for the Qinghai Plateau, we compared human footprint dynamics inside and outside the reserve and across its three functional zones (core, buffer, experimental). To isolate the policy effect, we employed a propensity score matching (PSM) approach to control for confounding geographical and socio-economic factors. Results indicate that while human pressure increased overall, the nature reserve was partially effective. The PSM-based comparison revealed that the increase in human footprint inside the nature reserve was lower than in matched external control areas. This effect was spatially heterogeneous and positively correlated with management intensity: it was most pronounced in the core zone, moderate in the buffer zone, and negligible in the experimental zone. The conservation outcomes showed notable improvement following policy enhancements, particularly after the national park’s formal establishment. The findings confirm the value of strict internal protection and functional zoning but highlight the challenge of intensifying peripheral pressures, underscoring the need for integrated landscape-level management strategies beyond the reserve’s boundaries to ensure long-term ecological integrity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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20 pages, 21225 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction and Optimization of an Ecological Network Based on Circuit Theory and Complex Network Analysis: A Case of Anyang City, China

by Zhichao Zhang, Xiao Wang, Chaohui Yin, Qian Wen, Yue Yang and Xinwei Lu

Land 2026, 15(3), 469; https://doi.org/10.3390/land15030469 - 15 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 985

Abstract

Assessing and optimizing regional ecological networks is critical for mitigating fragmentation-driven ecological risks and informing evidence-based territorial spatial planning in China. In this study, we developed a comprehensive evaluation framework integrating ecosystem services, ecological sensitivity, and landscape connectivity to identify ecological sources in Anyang City, China. We then extracted ecological corridors and nodes using circuit theory and constructed the city’s ecological network. Notably, we applied complex network theory combined with topological robustness analysis for optimization to enhance network stability. The analysis identified 43 ecological sources (820.72 km²; 11.16% of the region), predominantly distributed in western Anyang. A total of 82 corridors (460.35 km), 62 pinch points, and 120 barrier points were mapped—primarily in the west, revealing critical connectivity deficits. Network optimization through the addition of 10 strategic corridors significantly enhanced structural balance and functionality, with average degree, closeness centrality, clustering coefficient, eigenvector centrality, and graph density increasing by 5.55–12.19%, and their standard deviations decreasing by an average of 19.32%. Global efficiency (+8.74%), the largest connected component ratio (+0.73%), and node/edge recovery robustness (+17.44%/+18.08%) also improved markedly, confirming greater connectivity and resilience. Our methodology comprehensively integrates ecosystem functional services, disturbance resistance, and spatial structural stability, providing a practical reference for the construction and optimization of regional ecological networks in mountainous–plain transition zones of China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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29 pages, 3932 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Spatiotemporal Evolution of Ecological Environment in the Yellow River Basin in 2000–2024 and the Driving Mechanisms

by Yinan Wang, Lu Yuan, Yanli Zhou and Xiangchao Qin

Land 2025, 14(10), 1958; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14101958 - 28 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1299

Abstract

The Yellow River Basin (YRB), a pivotal ecoregion in China, has long been plagued by a range of ecological problems, including water loss, soil erosion, and ecological degradation. Despite previous reports on the ecological environment of YRB, systematic studies on the multi-factor driving mechanism and the coupling between the ecological and hydrological systems remain scarce. In this study, with multi-source remote-sensing imagery and measured hydrological data, the random forest (RF) model and the geographical detector (GD) technique were employed to quantify the dynamic spatiotemporal changes in the ecological environment of YRB in 2000–2024 and identify the driving factors. The variables analyzed in this study included gross primary productivity (GPP), fractional vegetation cover (FVC), land use and cover change (LUCC), meteorological statistics, as well as runoff and sediment data measured at hydrological stations in YRB. The main findings are as follows: first, the GPP and FVC increased significantly by 37.9% and 18.0%, respectively, in YRB in 2000–2024; second, LUCC was the strongest driver of spatiotemporal changes in the ecological environment of YRB; third, precipitation and runoff contributed positively to vegetation growth, whereas the sediment played a contrary role, and the response of ecological variables to the hydrological processes exhibited a time lag of 1–2 years. This study is expected to provide scientific insights into ecological conservation and water resources management in YRB, and offer a decision-making basis for the design of sustainability policies and eco-restoration initiatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Sensitive Areas: Ecosystem Services, Protected Lands, and Current Challenges (Third Edition))

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