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J. Compos. Sci.
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Rubber-Based Composites: Challenges in Reusing Waste and Nanostructures as Fillers
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Rubber-Based Composites: Challenges in Reusing Waste and Nanostructures as Fillers

A special issue of Journal of Composites Science (ISSN 2504-477X). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 5698

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Flávio Camargo Cabrera

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Engineering, School of Engineering and Sciences, Sao Paulo State University (UNESP), Rosana 19272-100, SP, Brazil
Interests: rubber composites; waste management; nanostructures; rubber-based devices
Dr. Carlos Henrique Scuracchio

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Materials Engineering Department, Science and Tehcnology Center of the Federal University of São Carlos, Sao Carlos 13565-905, Brazil
Interests: rubber recycling; vitrimers; electroactive polymers; IPMC; vulcanization additives
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Rubber, classified as an elastomer, is a flexible material capable of being stretched multiple times its original length without undergoing plastic deformation. Due to its properties such as elasticity, and thermal and electrical insulation, it finds extensive applications across various industries. Notable uses include automotive components like tires, hoses, transmission belts, and cushions; industrial equipment (hydraulic and pneumatic systems) utilizing sealing rings and gaskets to prevent leaks; medical materials including gloves and catheters; footwear manufacturing for soles; rubber flooring in the construction industry; and electrical insulators for electronics and telecommunications.

To be utilized in these products, rubber undergoes vulcanization processes that enhance its mechanical strength and durability. Furthermore, the incorporation of reinforcing fillers can improve tensile and tear resistance. Commercial fillers, such as carbon black and silica, contribute to chemical and mechanical resistance, while the addition of fillers like calcium carbonate or talc reduces costs. These fillers decrease the polymer matrix mass without significantly compromising the material's properties. Other fillers can also enhance composite processing by reducing vulcanization time or improving molding and may impart new properties like electrical conductivity or flame resistance.

An alternative to replace—even partially—commercial fillers involves utilizing waste materials. Although many agricultural and industrial wastes are directed towards energy generation or by-products through pyrolysis processes, recycling and beneficiation methods remain complex, costly, and require improvement in product quality. Consequently, employing fillers in composites offers an environmental advantage by enabling proper disposal of these residues, reducing costs, and mitigating mineral resource exploitation.

However, challenges persist, such as ensuring that waste-derived fillers provide mechanical reinforcement surpassing that of commercial fillers, achieve homogeneous dispersion, promote cross-linking within the polymer matrix, and yield reproducible results. Reducing filler size to nanometric levels presents advantages in interaction with the polymer matrix, provided uniform distribution and phase compatibility are ensured. Nanoparticles, including graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, nanoclays, titanates, and ceramics, have been integrated into composites. Future research correlating nanostructured with waste materials may facilitate the development of advanced engineering composites. With this, we are pleased to invite you to submit papers representing new reinforcing fillers, whether organic, fibrous or inorganic (industrial), originating from waste recycling or the synthesis of metallic or magnetic nanostructures, or prominent results with known commercial fillers such as carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, etc.

This Special Issue aims to summarize recent advances regarding reinforcing fillers in rubber composites, reuse of waste as reinforcement, and nanostructures for the production of advanced engineering materials. Research articles and reviews are welcome.

Dr. Flávio Camargo Cabrera
Dr. Carlos Henrique Scuracchio
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Composites Science is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • recycling
  • waste management
  • nanomaterials
  • filler
  • reinforcement

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 5065 KB  
Article
Sustainable Application and Valorization of Toner Waste as a Functional Filler in Styrene–Butadiene Rubber (SBR) Composites
by Dener da Silva Souza, Maria Claudia Costa de Oliveira Botan, Ricardo Henrique dos Santos, Michael Jones da Silva, Gleyson Tadeu de Almeida Santos, Leila Maria Sotocorno e Silva, Naiara Lima Costa, Carlos Toshiyuki Hiranobe, Guilherme Pina Cardim, Leandro Ferreira Pinto, Flávio Camargo Cabrera and Renivaldo José dos Santos
J. Compos. Sci. 2026, 10(4), 189; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs10040189 - 30 Mar 2026
Viewed by 541
Abstract
This study investigates the incorporation of toner residue (TR), derived from post-consumer printing cartridges, as an alternative filler in styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) composites, with emphasis placed on solid waste valorization and the promotion of a circular economy. TR consists predominantly of fine particles [...] Read more.
This study investigates the incorporation of toner residue (TR), derived from post-consumer printing cartridges, as an alternative filler in styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) composites, with emphasis placed on solid waste valorization and the promotion of a circular economy. TR consists predominantly of fine particles containing thermoplastic polymers, carbon black, metal oxides, and additives, exhibiting functional potential as a partially reinforcing filler material. Composites containing 0 to 50 phr of TR were prepared and characterized in terms of rheometric properties, dispersion degree, elemental composition by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), crosslink density, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), infrared spectroscopy, Shore A hardness, abrasion resistance, tensile strength, and tear resistance. Rheometric results indicated modifications in vulcanization kinetics and a reduction in maximum torque for formulations with high TR contents, suggesting a possible diluent effect or interference with elastomeric network formation. Conversely, moderate TR concentrations promoted increased hardness, improved tensile strength, and higher crosslink density, associated with adequate particle dispersion within the matrix, as confirmed by SEM analysis. However, excessive TR loading led to increased abrasion loss and an overall reduction in mechanical performance. It is concluded that TR demonstrates technical feasibility as a partial substitute for conventional fillers in SBR composites, with potential industrial application, such as in footwear sole prototypes, combining functional performance with environmental impact mitigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rubber-Based Composites: Challenges in Reusing Waste and Nanostructures as Fillers)
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19 pages, 3717 KB  
Article
Influence of Shungite from the Bakyrchik Deposit on the Properties of Rubber Composites Based on a Blend of Non-Polar Diene Rubbers
by Kanat Beknazarov, Abdirakym Nakyp, Elena Cherezova, Yulia Karaseva, Azat Khasanov, Wojciech Ignaczak, Rustam Tokpayev and Mikhail Nauryzbayev
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(12), 707; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9120707 - 18 Dec 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 800
Abstract
The study investigates the influence of a hybrid filler system based on carbon black, silica (SiO2) and shungite from the Bakyrchik deposit on the curing behavior of rubber compounds as well as on the physical–mechanical properties and thermal stability of vulcanizates [...] Read more.
The study investigates the influence of a hybrid filler system based on carbon black, silica (SiO2) and shungite from the Bakyrchik deposit on the curing behavior of rubber compounds as well as on the physical–mechanical properties and thermal stability of vulcanizates based on a blend of butadiene-alpha-methylstyrene and isoprene rubbers. The morphology and elemental composition of shungite were examined using SEM-EDS analysis. Thermogravimetric analysis of shungite was also performed. The introduction of shungite led to a decrease in Mooney viscosity and an increase in scorch time. Rubber composites containing 10–20 phr (parts per hundred rubber) of shungite exhibited a satisfactory balance between the processing properties of the rubber compounds and the physical–mechanical properties of the vulcanizates (tensile strength, elongation at break, and rebound resiliency), which makes them promising for practical application. When 10 phr of shungite was added, the tensile strength of the rubber composites after thermal aging remained at the level of the control sample, while the changes in elongation at break, rebound resilience, and hardness were less pronounced than in the control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rubber-Based Composites: Challenges in Reusing Waste and Nanostructures as Fillers)
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18 pages, 6373 KB  
Article
Experimental Study on the Cyclic Loading Behavior of Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Rubber Concrete in Sulfate Environment
by Yushan Liu and Jianyong Pang
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(9), 484; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9090484 - 5 Sep 2025
Viewed by 841
Abstract
In the saline soil area of western China, the concrete is simultaneously subjected to cyclic loading and sulfate attack. To reveal the effect of sulfate attack on fatigue performance of normal concrete (NC) and hybrid fiber-reinforced rubber concrete (HFRRC), the uniaxial compression test [...] Read more.
In the saline soil area of western China, the concrete is simultaneously subjected to cyclic loading and sulfate attack. To reveal the effect of sulfate attack on fatigue performance of normal concrete (NC) and hybrid fiber-reinforced rubber concrete (HFRRC), the uniaxial compression test and cyclic loading test were carried out on the specimens after sulfate erosion. The loading strain, plastic strain, and elastic strain of the concrete were compared and analyzed. The compressive strength, fatigue resistance, and strain energy of the concrete were compared and analyzed. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) measurements were also used to quantify the damage in sulfate attack tests. The results indicate that the fatigue failure stress of concrete is lower than its uniaxial compressive strength. The fatigue resistance coefficient of HFRRC is always higher than that of NC. Under the cyclic loading with the same level, the stress–strain curve of HFRRC is denser than that of NC, exhibiting good elasticity. The energy evolution is independent of whether or not sulfate attacks, but its growth rate is affected by sulfate erosion time. It can provide an experimental and theoretical foundation for the application of HFRRC in engineering structures subjected to repeated loads in sulfate environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rubber-Based Composites: Challenges in Reusing Waste and Nanostructures as Fillers)
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14 pages, 3356 KB  
Article
Effects of Incorporating Small Amounts of Fe3O4 Nanoparticles into Epoxidized Natural Rubber: Chemical Interactions, Morphology and Thermal Characteristics
by Omar S. Dahham and Khalid Al-Zamili
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(8), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080434 - 12 Aug 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1261
Abstract
Nanocomposites were synthesized from epoxidized natural rubber (ENR-50) and magnetite (Fe3O4) at 1, 5, and 9 wt.%, respectively. Various analyses were conducted to gain comprehensive insight into the properties of the nanocomposites. It was found that the ring epoxide [...] Read more.
Nanocomposites were synthesized from epoxidized natural rubber (ENR-50) and magnetite (Fe3O4) at 1, 5, and 9 wt.%, respectively. Various analyses were conducted to gain comprehensive insight into the properties of the nanocomposites. It was found that the ring epoxide units can be opened and bonded with the Fe moieties of the magnetite to form an Fe-O-C structure, as shown in FTIR spectra at 690 and 700 cm−1. Peaks in UV-vis spectra at the wavelength of 297 nm shifted to 299, 303, and 309 nm for the nanocomposite samples with 1, 5, and 9 wt.% Fe3O4, respectively. XRD showed a decrease in the amorphous peak intensity, while new diffraction peaks emerged at 33° and 43°, indicative of the crystalline structure of the Fe3O4 in the nanocomposites. Based on TEM micrographs, it was found that the average size of Fe3O4 particles in the rubber matrix with 1 wt.% Fe3O4 was around 20 and 33 nm. SEM micrographs proved that nanoparticles with 1 wt.% Fe3O4 were regularly dispersed in the rubber matrix, and that magnetite nanoparticles were spherical in shape, as well as having strong interactions and bonding with the rubber matrix. A TGA thermogram showed three thermal steps of degradation across a wide temperature range, from 81 °C to 592 °C, and resistance to thermal degradation of the nanocomposite samples as compared to the rubber sample could be clearly observed. Furthermore, DCS showed higher Tg for nanocomposites at 24.4, 25.1, and 26.3 °C, respectively, compared to purified ENR-50 at −18.6 °C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rubber-Based Composites: Challenges in Reusing Waste and Nanostructures as Fillers)
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12 pages, 866 KB  
Article
Reuse of Activated Carbon Filter Waste as Filler in Vulcanized Rubber Composites
by Viviane Chaves de Souza, Henrique Pina Cardim, Carlos Toshiyuki Hiranobe, Guilherme Pina Cardim, Iago William Zapelini, Leonardo Lataro Paim, Gleyson Tadeu Almeida Santos, Silvio Rainho Teixeira, Erivaldo Antônio da Silva, Renivaldo José dos Santos and Flávio Camargo Cabrera
J. Compos. Sci. 2025, 9(8), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs9080406 - 1 Aug 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1775
Abstract
The incorporation of residues into rubber composites has gained attention as a sustainable strategy to address waste management challenges while replacing commercial fillers. In this study, we investigated the potential use of water filter cartridge residue after exhaustion, composed of activated carbon, as [...] Read more.
The incorporation of residues into rubber composites has gained attention as a sustainable strategy to address waste management challenges while replacing commercial fillers. In this study, we investigated the potential use of water filter cartridge residue after exhaustion, composed of activated carbon, as a reinforcing filler in vulcanized natural rubber composites. Samples were prepared with 5, 10, 15, and 20 phr (per hundred rubber) of residue and compared to unfilled natural rubber. Stress vs. strain tests reached 13.9 MPa of tension at rupture for composites containing 10 phr of carbon-activated residues, representing a 21.9% increase compared to natural rubber. Interestingly, the tension at rupture for NR/AC10phr reached values close to those of NR/CB5phr (with carbon black N330) attaining 14.4 MPa. These results indicate that, even at relatively low concentrations, the carbon filter can offer partial substitution for commercial fillers. Moreover, the use of activated carbon from filter cartridges as filler in rubber composites provides an environmentally favorable alternative to energy-intensive regeneration processes for activated carbon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rubber-Based Composites: Challenges in Reusing Waste and Nanostructures as Fillers)
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