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The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 66341

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Prof. Dr. Bernd Rolauffs

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Department of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, Medical Center ‐ Albert‐Ludwigs‐University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Albert‐Ludwigs‐University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
Interests: cartilage; chondrocyte; degeneration; cell therapy; early diagnosis; spatial organization; biomechanics; mechanobiology; cell morphology; biophysical stimuli
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Dear Colleagues,

The clinical repair of focal articular cartilage defects is currently based on established surgical procedures and evidence-based guidelines that are optimized to specific defect characteristics and co-morbidities. However, effective repair strategies remain a major challenge in complex biochemical and biophysical environments associated with progressive degeneration, inflammation, and structural alterations of both articular cartilage and functionally-associated joint tissues; for example, early processes that lead to primary and/or secondary osteoarthritis (OA) such as post-traumatic OA. The second challenge is to develop future cartilage repair strategies in such a way that the principles of molecular, cellular, tissue, and joint functions are able to control their surrounding environment with a sufficiently complex design, but also that both the combined components as well as the individual components will remain licensable, given the current regulatory and financial framework. As the available tools for detecting early disease vs. progressive disease may not be sensitive enough to diagnose the disease at an early stage, the third challenge is to diagnostically pinpoint the best timing for detecting early disease to enable early intervention. Overcoming this will aid us in identifying the optimal stage of disease progression for the successful application of future cartilage and joint repair strategies.

In the context of developing future articular cartilage repair strategies, this Special Issue’s Editor invites original contributions and review articles that address these challenges. The suggested focus is to describe, control, and/or assess the articular cartilage environment on the molecular level but also on the associated cellular, tissue, joint, and/or systemic levels in order to make a significant contribution towards the future of cartilage repair in complex situations.

Prof. Dr. Bernd Rolauffs
Guest Editor

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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11 pages, 2375 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Method for Scaffold-Free Elastic Cartilage Creation

by Masahiro Enomura, Soichiro Murata, Yuri Terado, Maiko Tanaka, Shinji Kobayashi, Takayoshi Oba, Shintaro Kagimoto, Yuichiro Yabuki, Kenichi Morita, Toshimasa Uemura, Jiro Maegawa and Hideki Taniguchi

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(22), 8496; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21228496 - 11 Nov 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2508

Abstract

Microtia is a congenital aplasia of the auricular cartilage. Conventionally, autologous costal cartilage grafts are collected and shaped for transplantation. However, in this method, excessive invasion occurs due to limitations in the costal cartilage collection. Due to deformation over time after transplantation of the shaped graft, problems with long-term morphological maintenance exist. Additionally, the lack of elasticity with costal cartilage grafts is worth mentioning, as costal cartilage is a type of hyaline cartilage. Medical plastic materials have been transplanted as alternatives to costal cartilage, but transplant rejection and deformation over time are inevitable. It is imperative to create tissues for transplantation using cells of biological origin. Hence, cartilage tissues were developed using a biodegradable scaffold material. However, such materials suffer from transplant rejection and biodegradation, causing the transplanted cartilage tissue to deform due to a lack of elasticity. To address this problem, we established a method for creating elastic cartilage tissue for transplantation with autologous cells without using scaffold materials. Chondrocyte progenitor cells were collected from perichondrial tissue of the ear cartilage. By using a multilayer culture and a three-dimensional rotating suspension culture vessel system, we succeeded in creating scaffold-free elastic cartilage from cartilage progenitor cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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17 pages, 3433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

3D Culture of MSCs on a Gelatin Microsphere in a Dynamic Culture System Enhances Chondrogenesis

by Shamsul Sulaiman, Shiplu Roy Chowdhury, Mh Busra Fauzi, Rizal Abdul Rani, Nor Hamdan Mohamad Yahaya, Yasuhiko Tabata, Yosuke Hiraoka, Ruszymah Binti Haji Idrus and Ng Min Hwei

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(8), 2688; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21082688 - 13 Apr 2020

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4374

Abstract

Recent advancement in cartilage tissue engineering has explored the potential of 3D culture to mimic the in vivo environment of human cartilaginous tissue. Three-dimensional culture using microspheres was described to play a role in driving the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to chondrocyte lineage. However, factors such as mechanical agitation on cell chondrogenesis during culture on the microspheres has yet to be elucidated. In this study, we compared the 2D and 3D culture of bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) on gelatin microspheres (GMs) in terms of MSC stemness properties, immune-phenotype, multilineage differentiation properties, and proliferation rate. Then, to study the effect of mechanical agitation on chondrogenic differentiation in 3D culture, we cultured BMSCs on GM (BMSCs-GM) in either static or dynamic bioreactor system with two different mediums, i.e., F12: DMEM (1:1) + 10% FBS (FD) and chondrogenic induction medium (CIM). Our results show that BMSCs attached to the GM surface and remained viable in 3D culture. BMSCs-GM proliferated faster and displayed higher stemness properties than BMSCs on a tissue culture plate (BMSCs-TCP). GMs also enhanced the efficiency of in-vitro chondrogenesis of BMSCs, especially in a dynamic culture with higher cell proliferation, RNA expression, and protein expression compared to that in a static culture. To conclude, our results indicate that the 3D culture of BMSCs on gelatin microsphere was superior to 2D culture on a standard tissue culture plate. Furthermore, culturing BMSCs on GM in dynamic culture conditions enhanced their chondrogenic differentiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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17 pages, 2759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Primary Human Chondrocytes Affected by Cigarette Smoke—Therapeutic Challenges

by Tao Chen, Sabrina Ehnert, Gauri Tendulkar, Sheng Zhu, Christian Arnscheidt, Romina H. Aspera-Werz and Andreas K. Nussler

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(5), 1901; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21051901 - 10 Mar 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3501

Abstract

Although several researchers have attested deleterious effects of smoking to the musculoskeletal system, the association between smoking and the onset of osteoarthritis (OA) remains unclear. Here, we investigate the effect of cigarette smoke extract (CSE) on primary human chondrocytes. The present study demonstrates that physiological concentrations of CSE (0.1%–10%) inhibit the viability, proliferation, and matrix formation of chondrocytes in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Significant amounts of free radicals were generated by 10% of CSE and led to cell death. A clinical dosage (4 mg/mL) of dexamethasone (Dex) showed toxic effects on chondrocytes, and the long-time treatment by lower doses (4–400 μg/mL) induced hypertrophic changes in the chondrocytes. To substitute Dex, diclofenac (Dic, 1 μg/mL) and acetaminophen (Ace, 10 μg/mL) were tested and did not worsen the metabolic activity of CSE-exposed chondrocytes. Hyaluronic acid (HA, 5 mg/mL) combined with Dic or Ace significantly inhibited the oxidative stress and enhanced the viability and matrix formation of CSE-exposed chondrocytes. This study shows for the first time that CSE mediates the disruption of cartilage through inducing cell death by increasing oxidative stress, and that this effect is fortified by Dex. The deleterious effects of CSE on chondrocytes could be reversed by treatment with HA combined with first-line analgesic/anti-inflammatory agents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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13 pages, 3846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lysyl Oxidase-Like 2 Protects against Progressive and Aging Related Knee Joint Osteoarthritis in Mice

by Mustafa Tashkandi, Faiza Ali, Saqer Alsaqer, Thabet Alhousami, Amparo Cano, Alberto Martin, Fernando Salvador, Francisco Portillo, Louis C. Gerstenfeld, Mary B. Goldring and Manish V. Bais

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(19), 4798; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20194798 - 27 Sep 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3507

Abstract

Background: The goal of this study was to determine if adenovirus-delivered LOXL2 protects against progressive knee osteoarthritis (OA), assess its specific mechanism of action; and determine if the overexpression of LOXL2 in transgenic mice can protect against the development of OA-related cartilage damage and joint disability. Methods: Four-month-old Cho/+ male and female mice were intraperitoneally injected with either Adv-RFP-LOXL2 or an empty vector twice a month for four months. The proteoglycan levels and the expression of anabolic and catabolic genes were examined by immunostaining and qRT-PCR. The effect of LOXL2 expression on signaling was tested via the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL1β in the cartilage cell line ATDC5. Finally; the OA by monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) injection was also induced in transgenic mice with systemic overexpression of LOXL2 and examined gene expression and joint function by treadmill tests and assessment of allodynia. Results: The adenovirus treatment upregulated LOXL2; Sox9; Acan and Runx2 expression in both males and females. The Adv-RFP-LOXL2 injection; but not the empty vector injection increased proteoglycan staining and aggrecan expression but reduced MMP13 expression. LOXL2 attenuated IL-1β-induced phospho-NF-κB/p65 and rescued chondrogenic lineage-related genes in ATDC5 cells; demonstrating one potential protective mechanism. LOXL2 attenuated phospho-NF-κB independent of its enzymatic activity. Finally; LOXL2-overexpressing transgenic mice were protected from MIA-induced OA-related functional changes; including the time and distance traveled on the treadmill and allodynia. Conclusion: Our study demonstrates that systemic LOXL2 adenovirus or LOXL2 genetic overexpression in mice can protect against OA. These findings demonstrate the potential for LOXL2 gene therapy for knee-OA clinical treatment in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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9 pages, 3095 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Initial Harm Reduction by N-Acetylcysteine Alleviates Cartilage Degeneration after Blunt Single-Impact Cartilage Trauma in Vivo

by Jana Riegger, Frank Leucht, Hans-Georg Palm, Anita Ignatius and Rolf E. Brenner

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(12), 2916; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20122916 - 14 Jun 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3304

Abstract

Joint injuries are highly associated with the development of post-traumatic osteoarthritis. Previous studies revealed cell- and matrix-protective effects of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) after ex vivo cartilage trauma, while chondroanabolic stimulation with bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP7) enhanced type II collagen (COL2) expression. Here, as a next step, we investigated the combined and individual efficacy of intra-articular antioxidative and chondroanabolic treatment in a rabbit in vivo cartilage trauma model. Animals were randomly divided into group A (right joint: trauma (T); left joint: T+BMP7) and group B (right joint: T+NAC; left joint: T+BMP7+NAC). Condyles were impacted with the use of a spring-loaded impact device to ensure defined, single trauma administration. After 12 weeks, histopathological analysis was performed and the presence of matrix metalloproteinase 13 (MMP-13) and COL2 was assessed. Trauma-induced hypocellularity, MMP-13 expression, and cell cluster formation were reduced in NAC-treated animals. In contrast, BMP7 further increased cluster formation. Moreover, synovial concentrations of COL2 carboxy propeptide (CPII) and proteoglycan staining intensities were enhanced in NAC- and NAC+BMP7-treated joints. For the first time, the efficacy of NAC regarding early harm reduction after blunt cartilage trauma was demonstrated in vivo. However, parallel administration of BMP7 was not significantly superior compared to NAC alone. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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Review

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60 pages, 63296 KiB

Open AccessReview

Articular Chondrocyte Phenotype Regulation through the Cytoskeleton and the Signaling Processes That Originate from or Converge on the Cytoskeleton: Towards a Novel Understanding of the Intersection between Actin Dynamics and Chondrogenic Function

by Jasmin C. Lauer, Mischa Selig, Melanie L. Hart, Bodo Kurz and Bernd Rolauffs

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 3279; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22063279 - 23 Mar 2021

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5018

Abstract

Numerous studies have assembled a complex picture, in which extracellular stimuli and intracellular signaling pathways modulate the chondrocyte phenotype. Because many diseases are mechanobiology-related, this review asked to what extent phenotype regulators control chondrocyte function through the cytoskeleton and cytoskeleton-regulating signaling processes. Such information would generate leverage for advanced articular cartilage repair. Serial passaging, pro-inflammatory cytokine signaling (TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8), growth factors (TGF-α), and osteoarthritis not only induce dedifferentiation but also converge on RhoA/ROCK/Rac1/mDia1/mDia2/Cdc42 to promote actin polymerization/crosslinking for stress fiber (SF) formation. SF formation takes center stage in phenotype control, as both SF formation and SOX9 phosphorylation for COL2 expression are ROCK activity-dependent. Explaining how it is molecularly possible that dedifferentiation induces low COL2 expression but high SF formation, this review theorized that, in chondrocyte SOX9, phosphorylation by ROCK might effectively be sidelined in favor of other SF-promoting ROCK substrates, based on a differential ROCK affinity. In turn, actin depolymerization for redifferentiation would “free-up” ROCK to increase COL2 expression. Moreover, the actin cytoskeleton regulates COL1 expression, modulates COL2/aggrecan fragment generation, and mediates a fibrogenic/catabolic expression profile, highlighting that actin dynamics-regulating processes decisively control the chondrocyte phenotype. This suggests modulating the balance between actin polymerization/depolymerization for therapeutically controlling the chondrocyte phenotype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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46 pages, 24357 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Evidence-Based Systematic Review of Human Knee Post-Traumatic Osteoarthritis (PTOA): Timeline of Clinical Presentation and Disease Markers, Comparison of Knee Joint PTOA Models and Early Disease Implications

by Christine M. Khella, Rojiar Asgarian, Judith M. Horvath, Bernd Rolauffs and Melanie L. Hart

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1996; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041996 - 17 Feb 2021

Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5720

Abstract

Understanding the causality of the post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) disease process of the knee joint is important for diagnosing early disease and developing new and effective preventions or treatments. The aim of this review was to provide detailed clinical data on inflammatory and other biomarkers obtained from patients after acute knee trauma in order to (i) present a timeline of events that occur in the acute, subacute, and chronic post-traumatic phases and in PTOA, and (ii) to identify key factors present in the synovial fluid, serum/plasma and urine, leading to PTOA of the knee in 23–50% of individuals who had acute knee trauma. In this context, we additionally discuss methods of simulating knee trauma and inflammation in in vivo, ex vivo articular cartilage explant and in vitro chondrocyte models, and answer whether these models are representative of the clinical inflammatory stages following knee trauma. Moreover, we compare the pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations used in such models and demonstrate that, compared to concentrations in the synovial fluid after knee trauma, they are exceedingly high. We then used the Bradford Hill Framework to present evidence that TNF-α and IL-6 cytokines are causal factors, while IL-1β and IL-17 are credible factors in inducing knee PTOA disease progresssion. Lastly, we discuss beneficial infrastructure for future studies to dissect the role of local vs. systemic inflammation in PTOA progression with an emphasis on early disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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42 pages, 3056 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mechanotransduction and Stiffness-Sensing: Mechanisms and Opportunities to Control Multiple Molecular Aspects of Cell Phenotype as a Design Cornerstone of Cell-Instructive Biomaterials for Articular Cartilage Repair

by Mischa Selig, Jasmin C. Lauer, Melanie L. Hart and Bernd Rolauffs

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(15), 5399; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21155399 - 29 Jul 2020

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 5272

Abstract

Since material stiffness controls many cell functions, we reviewed the currently available knowledge on stiffness sensing and elucidated what is known in the context of clinical and experimental articular cartilage (AC) repair. Remarkably, no stiffness information on the various biomaterials for clinical AC repair was accessible. Using mRNA expression profiles and morphology as surrogate markers of stiffness-related effects, we deduced that the various clinically available biomaterials control chondrocyte (CH) phenotype well, but not to equal extents, and only in non-degenerative settings. Ample evidence demonstrates that multiple molecular aspects of CH and mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) phenotype are susceptible to material stiffness, because proliferation, migration, lineage determination, shape, cytoskeletal properties, expression profiles, cell surface receptor composition, integrin subunit expression, and nuclear shape and composition of CHs and/or MSCs are stiffness-regulated. Moreover, material stiffness modulates MSC immuno-modulatory and angiogenic properties, transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1)-induced lineage determination, and CH re-differentiation/de-differentiation, collagen type II fragment production, and TGF-β1- and interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β)-induced changes in cell stiffness and traction force. We then integrated the available molecular signaling data into a stiffness-regulated CH phenotype model. Overall, we recommend using material stiffness for controlling cell phenotype, as this would be a promising design cornerstone for novel future-oriented, cell-instructive biomaterials for clinical high-quality AC repair tissue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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15 pages, 829 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Chondrocyte Hypertrophy and Senescence in Osteoarthritis Initiation and Progression

by Yeri Alice Rim, Yoojun Nam and Ji Hyeon Ju

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(7), 2358; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21072358 - 29 Mar 2020

Cited by 159 | Viewed by 16142

Abstract

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most common joint disease that causes pain and disability in the adult population. OA is primarily caused by trauma induced by an external force or by age-related cartilage damage. Chondrocyte hypertrophy or chondrocyte senescence is thought to play a role in the initiation and progression of OA. Although chondrocyte hypertrophy and cell death are both crucial steps during the natural process of endochondral bone formation, the abnormal activation of these two processes after injury or during aging seems to accelerate the progression of OA. However, the exact mechanisms of OA progression and these two processes remain poorly understood. Chondrocyte senescence and hypertrophy during OA share various markers and processes. In this study, we reviewed the changes that occur during chondrocyte hypertrophy or senescence in OA and the attempts that were made to regulate them. Regulation of hypertrophic or senescent chondrocytes might be a potential therapeutic target to slow down or stop OA progression; thus, a better understanding of the processes is required for management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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24 pages, 1260 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Use of Nanomaterials in Tissue Engineering for Cartilage Regeneration; Current Approaches and Future Perspectives

by Aziz Eftekhari, Solmaz Maleki Dizaj, Simin Sharifi, Sara Salatin, Yalda Rahbar Saadat, Sepideh Zununi Vahed, Mohammad Samiei, Mohammadreza Ardalan, Maryam Rameshrad, Elham Ahmadian and Magali Cucchiarini

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(2), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21020536 - 14 Jan 2020

Cited by 84 | Viewed by 6457

Abstract

The repair and regeneration of articular cartilage represent important challenges for orthopedic investigators and surgeons worldwide due to its avascular, aneural structure, cellular arrangement, and dense extracellular structure. Although abundant efforts have been paid to provide tissue-engineered grafts, the use of therapeutically cell-based options for repairing cartilage remains unsolved in the clinic. Merging a clinical perspective with recent progress in nanotechnology can be helpful for developing efficient cartilage replacements. Nanomaterials, < 100 nm structural elements, can control different properties of materials by collecting them at nanometric sizes. The integration of nanomaterials holds promise in developing scaffolds that better simulate the extracellular matrix (ECM) environment of cartilage to enhance the interaction of scaffold with the cells and improve the functionality of the engineered-tissue construct. This technology not only can be used for the healing of focal defects but can also be used for extensive osteoarthritic degenerative alterations in the joint. In this review paper, we will emphasize the recent investigations of articular cartilage repair/regeneration via biomaterials. Also, the application of novel technologies and materials is discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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28 pages, 1630 KiB

Open AccessReview

Regulatory Effects and Interactions of the Wnt and OPG-RANKL-RANK Signaling at the Bone-Cartilage Interface in Osteoarthritis

by Béla Kovács, Enikő Vajda and Előd Ernő Nagy

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20(18), 4653; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20184653 - 19 Sep 2019

Cited by 115 | Viewed by 9342

Abstract

Cartilage and the bordering subchondral bone form a functionally active regulatory interface with a prominent role in osteoarthritis pathways. The Wnt and the OPG-RANKL-RANK signaling systems, as key mediators, interact in subchondral bone remodeling. Osteoarthritic osteoblasts polarize into two distinct phenotypes: a low secretory and an activated, pro-inflammatory and anti-resorptive subclass producing high quantities of IL-6, PGE2, and osteoprotegerin, but low levels of RANKL, thus acting as putative effectors of subchondral bone sclerosis. Wnt agonists, Wnt5a, Wisp-1 initiate excessive bone remodeling, while Wnt3a and 5a simultaneously cause loss of proteoglycans and phenotype shift in chondrocytes, with decreased expression of COL2A, aggrecan, and Sox-9. Sclerostin, a Wnt antagonist possesses a protective effect for the cartilage, while DKK-1 inhibits VEGF, suspending neoangiogenesis in the subchondral bone. Experimental conditions mimicking abnormal mechanical load, the pro-inflammatory milieu, but also a decreased OPG/RANKL ratio in the cartilage, trigger chondrocyte apoptosis and loss of the matrix via degradative matrix metalloproteinases, like MMP-13 or MMP-9. Hypoxia, an important cofactor exerts a dual role, promoting matrix synthesis via HIF-1α, a Wnt silencer, but turning on HIF-2α that enhances VEGF and MMP-13, along with aberrant collagen expression and extracellular matrix deterioration in the presence of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Cartilage Repair in Complex Biological Situations)

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