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Heritage
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Effective Models in Heritage Science
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Effective Models in Heritage Science

A special issue of Heritage (ISSN 2571-9408).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2023) | Viewed by 30395

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Peter Brimblecombe

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Department of Marine Environment and Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
2. School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
Interests: air pollution exposure; air pollution in China; fireworks pollution; heritage climatology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Jenny Richards

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
St John’s College, School of Geography and the Environment, Oxford University, Cambridge, UK
Interests: heritage science; geomorphology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Although a range of models have been applied in heritage science, practical uptake and utilisation has often been limited. This Special Issue will present various heritage models designed to serve as input in practice.

Heritage sites and objects are shaped by their environment. Investigating interactions between heritage and its surroundings is vital for establishing processes of change and informing management decisions. Process-based models provide a tool for exploring the effect of environmental change. Such work should contribute to better practice in heritage science and practical conservation and optimally encourage a two-way exchange of understanding between research and practice. However, within the heritage field, modelling is not as commonly applied as might be expected.

In this Special Issue, we will present a range of process-based models applied to tangible heritage objects and sites that have substantial potential or implications for heritage practice. The contributions should illustrate how the gap between heritage science and practice can be successfully bridged.

Examples of potentially suitable models for consideration in this Special Issue include:

  • Models examining dominant processes of change.
  • New or refined models quantifying the deterioration process and potential strategies to minimise deterioration.
  • Models addressing heritage lifespans.
  • Process-based models that demonstrate a strong trajectory towards improving the practical use of outputs.

Models will likely be quantitative or semi-quantitative.

Prof. Dr. Peter Brimblecombe
Dr. Jenny Richards
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Heritage is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

8 pages, 265 KiB  
Editorial
Tuning and Effectiveness in Heritage Models
by Jenny Richards and Peter Brimblecombe
Heritage 2023, 6(7), 5516-5523; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6070290 - 21 Jul 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1131
Abstract
Modelling can explore heritage responses to environmental pressures over wide spatial and temporal scales, testing both theory and process. However, compared to other fields, modelling approaches are not yet as common in heritage management. Some heritage models have become well known, though they [...] Read more.
Modelling can explore heritage responses to environmental pressures over wide spatial and temporal scales, testing both theory and process. However, compared to other fields, modelling approaches are not yet as common in heritage management. Some heritage models have become well known, though they struggle to have an impact beyond academia, with limited practical applications. Successful models appear to be adaptable to multiple sites or objects, intuitive to use, run using widely available software and produce output translatable into practical actions. Model tuning is also vital for the model to be effective. A specific purpose should be determined from the outset to enable tuning in the earliest design stages. Heritage models can be developed to explore theories or processes that affect or interact with heritage. Input should also be tuned to relevant temporal and spatial scales and consider duration and location. Additionally, it is important to account for materials and elements specific to heritage. Models need to be useful and usable if they are to be effective. User-friendly programs and interfaces help practical use. However, success can create problems, as input and output could become socially or commercially sensitive. The wider use of models may require broader discussion among heritage professionals and the provision of training. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)

Research

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19 pages, 4989 KiB  
Article
Mass-Transfer Air Pollution Modeling in Heritage Buildings
by Morten Ryhl-Svendsen and Signe Hjerrild Smedemark
Heritage 2023, 6(6), 4768-4786; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6060253 - 12 Jun 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1494
Abstract
Two simple mass-balance models for estimating the concentration of air pollutants inside buildings are presented for pollutants originating from outdoors or generated indoors. The models can be used to establish average pollution loads on heritage objects inside buildings and assist in risk assessment [...] Read more.
Two simple mass-balance models for estimating the concentration of air pollutants inside buildings are presented for pollutants originating from outdoors or generated indoors. The models can be used to establish average pollution loads on heritage objects inside buildings and assist in risk assessment for conservation. The models can be run with a minimum of data, either based on fixed conditions or as a Monte Carlo simulation based on plausible intervals of the input factors. Input data can be obtained by simple measurements or based on the literature. A museum storage hall in Denmark was used as a test site for demonstrating the models. They were evaluated with regard to the prediction of the indoor/outdoor concentration ratio for ozone and nitrogen dioxide and the build-up concentration of indoor generated organic acids. The pros and cons of such models were discussed, where the main reservation is related to shortcomings when real buildings are more complicated than the single-zone structure of the models. A strength of the models is the easy adaption to an indoor environment and, despite being semi-quantitative at times, the simplicity of the models, which allows for practical everyday use in air quality management of heritage buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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13 pages, 2640 KiB  
Article
Modeling Earthen Treatments for Climate Change Effects
by Sharlot Hart, Kara Raymond, C. Jason Williams, William A. Rutherford and Jacob DeGayner
Heritage 2023, 6(5), 4214-4226; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6050222 - 9 May 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2043
Abstract
Adobe has been used globally for millennia. In the US Southwest, cultural heritage sites made of adobe materials have lasted hundreds of years in an arid/semi-arid environment. A common prediction across multiple climate change models, however, is that rainfall intensity will increase in [...] Read more.
Adobe has been used globally for millennia. In the US Southwest, cultural heritage sites made of adobe materials have lasted hundreds of years in an arid/semi-arid environment. A common prediction across multiple climate change models, however, is that rainfall intensity will increase in the US Southwest. This increased erosivity threatens the long-term protection and preservation of these sites, and thus resource managers are faced with selecting effective conservation practices. For this reason, modeling tools are needed to predict climate change impacts and plan for adaptation strategies. Many existing strategies, including patching damaged areas, building protective caps and shelter coating walls are already commonly utilized. In this study, we modeled adobe block construction, subjected extant walls to a local 100-year return interval rainfall intensity, and tested earthen-coat-based strategies to minimize the deterioration of earthen fabric. Findings from the resultant linear models indicate that the patching of earthen architecture alone will not prevent substantial damage, while un-amended encapsulation coats and caps provide similar, and significantly greater protection than patching. The use of this model will enable local heritage resource managers to better target preservation methods for a return on investment of the material and labor costs, resulting in better preservation overall and the retention of culturally valuable resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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20 pages, 4009 KiB  
Article
Quantifying Housekeeping Challenge and Conservation Need
by Helen Lloyd
Heritage 2023, 6(4), 3757-3776; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6040199 - 19 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2056
Abstract
This simple model, developed by conservators, assists in the challenge of making preventive conservation, housekeeping, and care of historic interiors and collections, physically and economically sustainable, in historic houses welcoming increasing volumes of visitors (a primary source of dust). It introduces objectivity into [...] Read more.
This simple model, developed by conservators, assists in the challenge of making preventive conservation, housekeeping, and care of historic interiors and collections, physically and economically sustainable, in historic houses welcoming increasing volumes of visitors (a primary source of dust). It introduces objectivity into conservation advice and management decisions: how many collections care staff should each historic house ideally employ, and how large an annual budget is required to fund the non-wage costs of routine preventive and interventive conservation? Are staffing structures rational and consistent, and tailored to the individual and developing circumstances of multiple properties? Eight qualitative and quantitative criteria are each given a score from 1–4 in relation to their data ranges. The total scores for each property are converted to percentages, correlated with staffing structures, and used to estimate the requirements for daily, weekly and annual housekeeping and conservation cleaning. Selected data are used to measure housekeeping performance against weekly targets, and to rationalize the distribution of financial resources for preventive conservation and maintenance. The model can be adapted for use in any museum or heritage building which needs to assess and quantify the routine care of interiors and collections on open display to visitors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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24 pages, 7111 KiB  
Article
Painted Wood Climate Risk Analysis by the HERIe Model of Building Protection and Conservation Heating Scenarios in Norwegian Medieval Stone Churches
by Terje Grøntoft and Lena P. Stoveland
Heritage 2023, 6(3), 3089-3112; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6030165 - 15 Mar 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1555
Abstract
HERIe was used to model the effect of changes to indoor climate on the risk of humidity-induced mechanical damage (cracking and plastic deformation) to wooden panels painted with stiff gesso in two Norwegian medieval stone churches: Kinn (mean relative humidity (RH, %) = [...] Read more.
HERIe was used to model the effect of changes to indoor climate on the risk of humidity-induced mechanical damage (cracking and plastic deformation) to wooden panels painted with stiff gesso in two Norwegian medieval stone churches: Kinn (mean relative humidity (RH, %) = 79%) on the humid west coast, and Ringsaker (mean RH = 49%) in the drier eastern part of the country. The risk involved in moving cultural heritage objects (paint on wood) between the churches and a conservation studio with more “ideal”, stable conditions was also modeled. A hypothetical reduction in RH to ~65% and, proportionally, of the climate fluctuations in Kinn, and an increase in the RH in Ringsaker to a more stable value of ~63% via conservation heating, were found to improve (Kinn) and uphold (Ringsaker) the conformity to relevant standards and significantly reduce the risk of damage, except in the scenario of moving objects from Ringsaker to a conservation studio, when the risk would increase. The use of conservation heating could save ~50% of the heating cost. The estimated risk reductions may be less relevant for objects kept in situ, where cracks in the original paint and gesso have developed historically. They may be more relevant when moving original objects away from their proofed climate into a conservation studio for treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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15 pages, 1536 KiB  
Article
Modelling the Alteration of Medieval Stained Glass as a Function of Climate and Pollution: Comparison between Different Methodologies
by Aurélie Verney-Carron, Loryelle Sessegolo, Roger-Alexandre Lefèvre and Peter Brimblecombe
Heritage 2023, 6(3), 3074-3088; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6030164 - 15 Mar 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1706
Abstract
Most stained-glass windows installed during the Middle Ages have deteriorated over time due to climate and pollution. To reconstruct their alteration history over the centuries, evaluate the current environmental risk, and predict their alteration in the future, two modelling methodologies have been used. [...] Read more.
Most stained-glass windows installed during the Middle Ages have deteriorated over time due to climate and pollution. To reconstruct their alteration history over the centuries, evaluate the current environmental risk, and predict their alteration in the future, two modelling methodologies have been used. First, based on the short-term exposure of medieval-type glass in different sites, dose–response functions (DRFs) were established. These DRFs correlate relevant environmental factors (temperature, rain quantity, rain pH, relative humidity, and SO2 concentration) with the response of the material in terms of alteration layer thickness. The second methodology consists of laboratory experiments that aim at parametrising kinetic laws as a function of specific parameters (temperature, rain pH, and relative humidity). These kinetic laws can be extrapolated over long periods, contrary to DRFs. In this study, we compared both methodologies to simulate the alteration of a model stained glass at different European sites or over different time periods. The results highlighted that the kinetic laws were able to closely represent the data, except for the polluted sites where the alteration was underestimated. This indicated that the dependence of the alteration rate on the pollutant concentrations should be included to improve the model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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17 pages, 9904 KiB  
Article
Practical Use of Damage Functions for Environmental Preventive Conservation and Sustainability—Examples from Naturally Ventilated Buildings
by David Thickett
Heritage 2023, 6(3), 2633-2649; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6030139 - 1 Mar 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1934
Abstract
This work explores the potential of using damage functions to assess cultural heritage environments. Changes caused by dimensional variation due to fluctuations in relative humidity are assessed using two accessible functions, and a third is discussed. The risk of mould growth is assessed [...] Read more.
This work explores the potential of using damage functions to assess cultural heritage environments. Changes caused by dimensional variation due to fluctuations in relative humidity are assessed using two accessible functions, and a third is discussed. The risk of mould growth is assessed from a time series of temperature and RH data. The results of previous studies comparing predictions from four functions to observed mould formation are reviewed, and the practical aspects of using the functions are described. Two situations related to metal and stone risk are described, comparing environments for display and assessing new or refitted buildings for storage. The use of functions to improve sustainability and their combination with performance models to predict carbon footprints are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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22 pages, 1535 KiB  
Article
Climate Change Effects on Carbonation Process: A Scenario-Based Study
by Gabriella Bretti and Maurizio Ceseri
Heritage 2023, 6(1), 236-257; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6010012 - 27 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3062
Abstract
Using a mathematical model of concrete carbonation that describes the variation in porosity as a consequence of the involved chemical reactions, we both validated and calibrated the related numerical algorithm of degradation. Once calibrated, a simulation algorithm was used as a forecasting tool [...] Read more.
Using a mathematical model of concrete carbonation that describes the variation in porosity as a consequence of the involved chemical reactions, we both validated and calibrated the related numerical algorithm of degradation. Once calibrated, a simulation algorithm was used as a forecasting tool for predicting the effects on the porosity of concrete exposed to increasing levels of CO2 emissions, as well as to rising temperatures. Taking into account future projections of environmental modifications deriving from climate changes, some scenarios were produced numerically by the mathematical algorithm that showed the effects of different pollution levels and global warming on the porosity of Portland cement in a time window of years. Finally, a theoretical study on the effects of pollution levels on the carbonation constant determining the advancement in the carbonation front was carried out for the analyzed scenarios. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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16 pages, 2004 KiB  
Article
Modeling Salt Behavior with ECOS/RUNSALT: Terminology, Methodology, Limitations, and Solutions
by Sebastiaan Godts, Michael Steiger, Scott Allan Orr, Amelie Stahlbuhk, Julie Desarnaud, Hilde De Clercq, Veerle Cnudde and Tim De Kock
Heritage 2022, 5(4), 3648-3663; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5040190 - 23 Nov 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3047
Abstract
Damage to porous materials in heritage buildings caused by salt mixture crystallization is driven by the surrounding environmental conditions. To understand the crystallization behavior of a mixed salt solution as a function of changing climatic conditions (i.e., relative humidity and temperature), excluding factors [...] Read more.
Damage to porous materials in heritage buildings caused by salt mixture crystallization is driven by the surrounding environmental conditions. To understand the crystallization behavior of a mixed salt solution as a function of changing climatic conditions (i.e., relative humidity and temperature), excluding factors such as the internal pore structure, the thermodynamic model ECOS/RUNSALT is the only freeware available that requires simple input and includes the most relevant ions for heritage buildings and solids. We suggest the use of specific terminology and describe how to use the model and how to interpret the output, with emphasis on key limitations for which solutions are provided. When used correctly, the model output can be trusted, specifically when it is used to inform preventive conservation (e.g., environmental conditions in which salt crystallization cycles should not occur). However, salt mixture kinetics and the internal pore structure remain crucial parameters that are not considered in the model. These aspects need further attention to develop a better understanding and correctly model salt damage in relation to climatic changes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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21 pages, 4078 KiB  
Article
Moisture as a Driver of Long-Term Threats to Timber Heritage—Part II: Risks Imposed on Structures at Local Sites
by Peter Brimblecombe and Jenny Richards
Heritage 2022, 5(4), 2966-2986; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5040154 - 5 Oct 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2477
Abstract
Timber heritage sites are vulnerable to damage from moisture. Simple meteorological descriptions of climate need to be tuned to capture drivers that threaten heritage, including dimensional change, insect attack and mould growth. Global climate models often provide projections through to the end of [...] Read more.
Timber heritage sites are vulnerable to damage from moisture. Simple meteorological descriptions of climate need to be tuned to capture drivers that threaten heritage, including dimensional change, insect attack and mould growth. Global climate models often provide projections through to the end of the 21st century but need to be translated to a local level to reveal processes of deterioration at specific sites. Translation to a local level can be challenging and requires the use of local information from a range of sources. This translation is explored over a range of sites facing different climate pressures, including fungal and insect risk at Harmondsworth Great Barn, England; changes in humidity range, salt risk and algal growth in rural timber buildings in the Midwestern states, USA; wind-driven rain impacts on board houses in Freetown, Sierra Leone; and rainfall and humidity range on timber buildings among the tropical rainforests of the Amazon, Congo Basin and Southeast Asia. Evidence-based narratives provide a tool to incorporate a multiplicity of local information to enrich projections and the interpretation of the model output. These could build trust and aid decision-making based on future projections, which are inherently uncertain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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18 pages, 5547 KiB  
Article
Moisture as a Driver of Long-Term Threats to Timber Heritage—Part I: Changing Heritage Climatology
by Jenny Richards and Peter Brimblecombe
Heritage 2022, 5(3), 1929-1946; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5030100 - 29 Jul 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2901
Abstract
Timber is widely used in the construction of buildings on a global scale, but it is sensitive to degradation. Moisture notably poses a risk to timber decay, and this is likely to change significantly during the 21st century if a high emission scenario [...] Read more.
Timber is widely used in the construction of buildings on a global scale, but it is sensitive to degradation. Moisture notably poses a risk to timber decay, and this is likely to change significantly during the 21st century if a high emission scenario occurs. Global HadGEM3 model output was used to map projected changes in relative humidity range, seasonality of relative humidity, time of wetness, wind-driven rain, salt transitions and potential for fungal attack (Scheffer Index). In the Congo Basin, Great Plains (USA) and Scandinavia, humidity ranges are likely to increase along with seasonal change. In many parts of the tropics, time of wetness is likely to decrease by the end of the century. Increases in days of wind-driven rain are projected for western Russia, eastern Europe, Alaska, western Canada and Southern Brazil and Paraguay. Drylands have historically had a low salt risk, but this is projected to increase. In the future, a broad extension of fungal risk along the Himalayas and into central China seems likely, driven as much by temperature as rainfall. The picture presented suggests a slightly less humid heritage climate, which will redistribute the risks to heritage. Mapping global pressures of timber decay could help policymakers and practitioners identify geographically disparate regions that face similar pressures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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Review

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12 pages, 1204 KiB  
Review
Climate Change and Cultural Heritage: Methods and Approaches for Damage and Risk Assessment Addressed to a Practical Application
by Alessandra Bonazza and Alessandro Sardella
Heritage 2023, 6(4), 3578-3589; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage6040190 - 10 Apr 2023
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4292
Abstract
In the last 20 years, research on the observed and projected impacts of climate change on cultural heritage has led to significant developments regarding damage quantification and risk assessment, which unfortunately are not yet exhaustively transferred to practical applications and to the sector [...] Read more.
In the last 20 years, research on the observed and projected impacts of climate change on cultural heritage has led to significant developments regarding damage quantification and risk assessment, which unfortunately are not yet exhaustively transferred to practical applications and to the sector of policy and decision making. One of the major reasons for this still lacking alignment remains with the inadequate handover of quantitative data, which is a prerequisite for the development of measures and strategies for the mitigation of the impacts and risk reduction. In this paper, we focus on the methods and approaches put in place for the production of projections providing quantitative assessments of climate change-induced impacts in the near and far future (up to the 21st century) on outdoor built heritage mainly constituted by stone and stone-like materials. Our critical study found that different approaches have been applied for quantifying slow cumulative damage due to the ongoing variations of climate and air pollution parameters and to risk assessment caused by hydrometeorological extreme events induced by variations of temperature and precipitation. There is clear evidence that efforts are still needed for directing research to provide concrete solutions and tools addressed to meet the requirements of stakeholders and to solve the existing challenges in the field: selected effective models and tools are illustrated. The discussion is structured in order to highlight the driving role of research in supporting the definition of priorities for heritage managers and the development of strategies by decision and policy makers for the prevention and safeguarding of cultural heritage at risk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effective Models in Heritage Science)
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