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Fire
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Fire Extinguishing Agent and Application
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Fire Extinguishing Agent and Application

A special issue of Fire (ISSN 2571-6255).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2025) | Viewed by 11232

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Qian Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
Interests: aqueous foam extinguishing agent; compressed air foam extinguishing agent; foam stability; foam extinguishing agent application
Dr. Jin Lin

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Fire Science, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230027, China
Interests: fire control; smoke; fire suppressant technology; fire suppressant applications
Dr. Mingjun Xu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore
Interests: water mist; droplets; pool fire; water spray; fire suppression mechanism and building fire dynamics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Youjie Sheng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Safety Science and Engineering, Xi’an University of Science and Technology, Xi'an, China
Interests: flame extinction mechanism; fire-extinguishing agents; porous material; nano material; lithium battery fire
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Efficient and clean fire extinguishing technology has always been the focus and a difficulty in the field of firefighting. From the prohibition of halon extinguishing agents due to ozone layer destruction, to the limited use of fluorinated foam extinguishing agents in recent years due to the persistence and toxicity of their important component, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), fire extinguishing agents have been developing in the direction of ensuring safety and efficiency while being environmentally friendly. In the field of liquid fire, various new types of foam extinguishing agents to replace PFOS-containing foam extinguishing agents have become a research hotspot. In other, different fire extinguishing applications, the research on ultrafine dry powder, fine water mist, clean gas extinguishing agents, and other research has also ushered in breakthrough progress. We focus on the innovation and effectiveness of these fire extinguishing agents in different applications. Moreover, matching high-efficiency fire extinguishing technologies and equipment are also desirable, such as compressed air foaming technologies, unmanned aerial vehicle fire extinguishers, and so on.

The Special Issue aims to update the latest research progress in and application of fire extinguishing agents, analyze the fire extinguishing mechanisms of different high-efficiency fire extinguishing agents, and promote the development of new high-efficiency and clean fire extinguishing agents for different applications. In addition, papers on efficient fire extinguishing technology and equipment are also desirable. Original research articles and reviews using experiments, theories, and calculation methods are welcome.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Qian Li
Dr. Jin Lin
Dr. Mingjun Xu
Dr. Youjie Sheng
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Fire is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • fire extinguishing agent
  • fire extinguishing mechanism
  • fire extinguishing technology and equipment
  • fire extinguishing equipment
  • fire extinguishing effectiveness and application
  • compressed air foam system

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 6420 KB  
Article
The Influence of the Heat Transfer Mode on the Stability of Foam Extinguishing Agents
by Xia Zhou, Zhihao An, Ziheng Liu, Hongjie Ha, Yixuan Li and Renming Pan
Fire 2024, 7(4), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7040137 - 12 Apr 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2315
Abstract
The mass loss mechanisms of an aqueous film-forming foam (AF foam), an AR/AFFF water-soluble film-forming foam extinguishing agent (AR foam), and a Class A foam extinguishing agent (A foam) at different levels of thermal radiation, thermal convection, and heat conduction intensity were studied. [...] Read more.
The mass loss mechanisms of an aqueous film-forming foam (AF foam), an AR/AFFF water-soluble film-forming foam extinguishing agent (AR foam), and a Class A foam extinguishing agent (A foam) at different levels of thermal radiation, thermal convection, and heat conduction intensity were studied. At a relatively low thermal radiation intensity, the liquid separation rate of the AF, AR, and A foams is related to the properties of the foam itself, such as viscosity and surface/interface tension, which are relatively independent of the external radiation heat flux of the foam. At low radiation intensity (15 kW/m2 and 25 kW/m2), the liquid separation rate of the AF and A foams is relatively stable. When the heat flux intensity is 35 kW/m2, the liquid separation rate of the AF and A foams increases notably, which may be mainly due to the rapid decrease in foam viscosity. And the mass loss behavior is dominated by liquid separation in the AF, AR, and A foams under the influence of thermal radiation and thermal convection. Under the same experimental conditions, the liquid separation rate of AF is the fastest. There is no significant difference in the evaporation rates of the three kinds of foam in the same heat conduction condition. In addition, the AR and A foams usually have a 25% longer liquid separation time (t) under thermal radiation and thermal convection, and the thermal stability is better than AF foam. The temperature reached by the AF foam layer under thermal convection was lower than that of the AR and A foams, and the time for the foam layer to reach the highest temperature under heat conduction was longer than that of the AR and A foams. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Extinguishing Agent and Application)
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15 pages, 3848 KB  
Article
Experimental Study on Fire Suppression of the Outdoor Oil-Immersed Transformer by High-Pressure Water Mist System
by Huaitao Song, Haowei Yao, Xiaoge Wei, Hengjie Qin, Youxin Li, Kefeng Lv and Qianlong Chen
Fire 2023, 6(6), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire6060238 - 15 Jun 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3876
Abstract
Fire accidents due to oil-immersed transformers seriously threaten the safe operation of power systems. In this paper, the similarity principle was used to design a high-pressure water mist fire-extinguishing test platform for a small-scale transformer fire, and the design method achieved a good [...] Read more.
Fire accidents due to oil-immersed transformers seriously threaten the safe operation of power systems. In this paper, the similarity principle was used to design a high-pressure water mist fire-extinguishing test platform for a small-scale transformer fire, and the design method achieved a good fire extinguishing effect. The results indicate that a deflagration phenomenon, lasting about 2–4 s, could be observed after activating the high-pressure water mist system; the flame temperature rose rapidly at first, then dropped sharply, and finally cooled to the indoor temperature. The nozzle’s flow rate in this system has a significant impact on the fire extinguishing time. Meanwhile, the adjustment of the upper nozzle height also influenced the fire suppression effectiveness of the system, where a height of 1800 mm achieved the best performance compared to the others. In addition, the ambient wind speed is a very unfavorable factor for transformer fire suppression, where the fire extinguishing efficiency decreases rapidly with the increase in wind speed. Therefore, under low wind speed conditions, the high-pressure water mist system has great advantages in the fire suppression of outdoor oil-immersed transformers, and the above research results can provide a reference for the optimization design of this system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Extinguishing Agent and Application)
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Review

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27 pages, 2712 KB  
Review
Type IV High-Pressure Composite Pressure Vessels for Fire Fighting Equipment: A Comprehensive Review and Market Assessment
by Krisztián Kun, Dávid István Kis and Caizhi Zhang
Fire 2025, 8(12), 465; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8120465 - 29 Nov 2025
Viewed by 817
Abstract
Type IV composite overwrapped pressure vessels—characterized by a polymer liner fully wrapped in fiber-reinforced polymer—are emerging as lightweight, corrosion-proof alternatives to traditional metal cylinders in fire safety applications. This paper presents a comprehensive review of Type IV high-pressure vessels used in portable fire [...] Read more.
Type IV composite overwrapped pressure vessels—characterized by a polymer liner fully wrapped in fiber-reinforced polymer—are emerging as lightweight, corrosion-proof alternatives to traditional metal cylinders in fire safety applications. This paper presents a comprehensive review of Type IV high-pressure vessels used in portable fire extinguishers and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) systems. We outline recent material innovations for both the non-metallic liners and composite shells, including multilayer liner designs (e.g., high-barrier polymers and nanocomposites) and advanced fiber/resin systems. Key manufacturing developments such as automated filament winding, resin infusion, and in-line non-destructive testing are discussed. Technical performance in fire applications is critically examined: current standards and certification requirements (EU and international), typical design pressures (e.g., 300 bar in SCBA) and safety factors, common failure modes (liner collapse, fiber rupture, etc.), inspection protocols, and a comparison with Type IV hydrogen storage cylinders. Market trends are also reviewed, highlighting the major manufacturers and the growing adoption of composite extinguishers (e.g., 20-year service-life composite units) versus conventional steel. The review draws on 7–10 peer-reviewed studies to analyze the state of the art, finding that Type IV vessels offer significant weight reduction (>30%) and corrosion resistance at the cost of more complex design and certification. In firefighting use, these cylinders demonstrably improve firefighter mobility and reduce maintenance, while meeting rigorous safety standards. Remaining challenges include further improving liner permeability barriers to prevent gas leakage or collapse, understanding long-term composite aging under cyclic loads, and optimizing fire resistance. Overall, Type IV composite pressure vessels represent a major innovation in fire suppression technology, enabling safer and more efficient extinguishing equipment. Future research and standardization efforts are recommended to fully realize their benefits in fire protection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Extinguishing Agent and Application)
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18 pages, 297 KB  
Review
Advances and Environmental Impact Assessment of Forest Fire Extinguishing Agents
by Jiaqi Gao, Lixuan Wang, Weilong Zhang, Jibin Ning, Weike Li, Tongxin Hu and Guang Yang
Fire 2025, 8(11), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8110411 - 23 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1638
Abstract
In the context of climate change, increasingly severe forest fires present a significant threat to lives, property, ecosystem functionality, and the sustainable development of forest resources. As a result, there is an urgent need for rapid, efficient, and environmentally friendly technologies for fire [...] Read more.
In the context of climate change, increasingly severe forest fires present a significant threat to lives, property, ecosystem functionality, and the sustainable development of forest resources. As a result, there is an urgent need for rapid, efficient, and environmentally friendly technologies for fire suppression and containment. This paper begins by reviewing the current research on forest fire extinguishing agents and materials that hold promise for effective fire suppression. Among these agents, gaseous and foam extinguishing materials exhibit drawbacks such as low efficiency or significant environmental hazards. In contrast, natural polymer hydrogels, which are high in water content, environmentally friendly, and biodegradable, show significant potential for developing clean and efficient extinguishing materials. Furthermore, this paper discusses existing environmental assessment standards for fire extinguishing agents, as well as the assessment systems proposed in various studies. It finds that, while universal assessment standards are fairly well-established, current research primarily focuses on enhancing fire suppression performance. However, the environmental performance assessment of forest fire extinguishing agents—often used in large quantities—remains inadequate. Therefore, there is an urgent need to establish a comprehensive and systematic environmental assessment system to address this theoretical and practical gap. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Extinguishing Agent and Application)
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Other

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12 pages, 3541 KB  
Technical Note
Investigation of Air Foam and Heptafluoropropane Foam Fire Extinguishment for Storage Tanks Containing Low-Boiling-Point Flammable Liquids
by Youquan Bao, Lu Wang, Huiqiang Zhi, Shichang Lu, Junyang Wang, Xia Du, Yiliang Huang, Kanghui Xu, Qiyang Shu and Xiaopo Wang
Fire 2025, 8(4), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8040152 - 10 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1148
Abstract
Due to the high saturated vapor pressure of low-boiling-point flammable liquids, it is difficult to make fire extinguishers for storage tanks containing them. Air foam extinguishing technology has been recommended by several standards. However, the effectiveness of air foam against low-boiling-point flammable liquid [...] Read more.
Due to the high saturated vapor pressure of low-boiling-point flammable liquids, it is difficult to make fire extinguishers for storage tanks containing them. Air foam extinguishing technology has been recommended by several standards. However, the effectiveness of air foam against low-boiling-point flammable liquid is still limited due to a lack of experimental data. To validate the reliability of air foam, fire-extinguishing measures for three low-boiling-point flammable liquids including propylene oxide, n-pentane, and condensate oil were carried out for the first time in this work. The results show that air foam fails the fire extinguishment of the studied liquids even at higher supply intensities. To address the challenge of fire extinguishment in storage tanks containing low-boiling-point flammable liquids, a novel method using heptafluoropropane (HFC227ea) phase change foaming to substitute air was proposed in this work. The experimental system of HFC227ea foam fire extinguishment was constructed. In addition, two low-boiling-point flammable liquids propylene oxide and n-pentane were selected as the research subjects, the fire extinguishment measures were conducted. The results show that the proposed method can realize rapid and effective extinguishment of flames for the studied liquids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Extinguishing Agent and Application)
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