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Combustion and Application of Carbon Neutral Fuel in Internal Combustion Engine

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "I2: Energy and Combustion Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 January 2026) | Viewed by 6034

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Dr. Zezhou Guo

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Guest Editor

College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
Interests: zero-carbon power system
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Dr. Cheng Shi

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Guest Editor

School of Vehicle and Energy, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
Interests: rotary engine; hydrogen; combustion; emissions control; ignition; sustainability; vehicle engineering
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

With increasing global attention being paid to climate change, the development of carbon-neutral fuels represents an important means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon-neutral fuel refers to fuels that have no impact on the climate, as they produce the same levels of carbon recovery and greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon-neutral fuels can be used in the transportation and energy sectors to replace traditional fossil fuels. In the former, carbon-neutral fuels can be used for the power systems of vehicles, such as private cars, trucks, and airplanes; in the latter, they can be used for power generation. Therefore, promoting the application of carbon-neutral fuels in internal combustion engines is of great significance, and governments, enterprises, and scholars around the world are actively researching and promoting this topic in an effort to reduce carbon emissions and promote sustainable development.

This Special Issue aims to showcase and disseminate the latest developments in technology related to the application of carbon-neutral fuels in internal combustion engines.

Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

All aspects of carbon-neutral fuel internal combustion engines, such as hydrogen in internal combustion engines, ammonia in internal combustion engines, alcohol in internal combustion engines, dimethyl ether in internal combustion engines, natural gas in internal combustion engines, etc.;
Structural design of carbon-neutral fuel for internal combustion engines;
Combustion technology for carbon-neutral fuel in internal combustion engines;
Combustion mechanisms;
Model establishment;
Numerical simulation research;
Emission control and purification;
Engine control.

Dr. Zezhou Guo
Dr. Cheng Shi
Guest Editors

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Keywords

ammonia
hydrogen
alcohol fuel
e-fuel
combustion
emissions
numerical simulation
engine design
engine control

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 4830 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical Investigation on Mixture Formation and Injection Strategy Optimization in a Heavy-Duty PFI Methanol Engine

by Zhancheng Dou, Xiaoting Xu, Changhui Zhai, Xiaoxiao Zeng, Kui Shi, Xinbo Wu, Yi Liu, Yunliang Qi and Zhi Wang

Energies 2026, 19(2), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19020304 - 7 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Methanol is a liquid fuel with high oxygen content and the potential for a closed-loop carbon-neutral production cycle. To investigate the mixture formation and combustion characteristics of a heavy-duty Port Fuel Injection (PFI) methanol engine, a three-dimensional numerical simulation model was established using the CONVERGE 3.0 software. Multi-cycle simulations were performed to analyze the influence of wall film dynamics on engine performance. The results indicate that the “adhesion–evaporation” equilibrium of the intake port wall film determines the in-cylinder mixture concentration. Due to the high latent heat of vaporization of methanol, severe wall-wetting occurs during the initial cycles, causing the actual fuel intake to lag behind the injection and leading to an overly lean mixture and misfire. Regarding injection strategies, the open valve injection (OVI) strategy utilizes high-speed intake airflow to reduce wall adhesion and improve fuel transport efficiency compared to closed valve injection. OVI refers to the fuel injection strategy that injects fuel into the intake port during the intake valve opening phase. The open valve injection strategy (e.g., SOI −500° CA) demonstrates distinct superiority over closed valve strategies (SOI −200°/−100° CA), achieving a 75% reduction in wall film mass. The long injection duration and early phasing allow the high-speed intake airflow to carry fuel directly into the cylinder, significantly minimizing wall film accumulation and avoiding the “fuel starvation” observed in closed-valve strategies. Additionally, OVI fully utilizes methanol’s latent heat to generate an intake cooling effect, which lowers the in-cylinder temperature and helps suppress knock. Furthermore, a dual-injector strategy is proposed to balance spatial atomization and rapid fuel transport, which achieves a 66.7% increase in the fuel amount entering the cylinder compared with the original strategy. This configuration effectively resolves the fuel induction lag, achieving stable combustion starting from the first cycle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Application of Carbon Neutral Fuel in Internal Combustion Engine)

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22 pages, 2174 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic CO₂ Emission Differences Between E10 and E85 Fuels Based on Speed–Acceleration Mapping

by Piotr Laskowski, Edward Kozłowski, Magdalena Zimakowska-Laskowska, Piotr Wiśniowski, Jonas Matijošius, Stanisław Oszczak, Robertas Keršys, Marcin Krzysztof Wojs and Szymon Dowkontt

Energies 2026, 19(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/en19010040 - 21 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1518

Abstract

This study compared CO₂ emissions during a WLTP (Worldwide Harmonized Light-Duty Vehicles Test Procedure) test performed on a chassis dynamometer for the same flex-fuel vehicle, fuelled sequentially with E10 gasoline and E85 fuel. Based on the test data, a CO₂ emissions map was created, describing its dependence on speed and acceleration. The use of a 3D surface enabled the visualisation of the whole dynamics of emissions as a function of engine load in the WLTP cycle, including the identification of distinct emission peaks in areas of high positive acceleration. Analysis of the emission surface enabled the identification of structural differences between the fuels. For E85, more pronounced emission increases are observed in areas of intense acceleration, a consequence of the higher fuel demand resulting from the lower calorific value of bioethanol. In steady-state and moderate-load driving, CO₂ emissions for both fuels are similar. The results confirm that the main differences between E10 and E85 are not simply a shift in emission levels per se, but stem from variations in engine load during the dynamic cycle. Although E85 emits measurable CO₂ emissions, its carbon is not of fossil origin, highlighting the importance of biofuels in the context of greenhouse gas emission reduction strategies and the pursuit of climate neutrality. The presented methodology, combining chassis dynamometer tests with analysis of the speed-acceleration emission map, provides a tool for clearly identifying emission zones and can serve as a basis for further optimisation of engine control strategies and assessing the impact of fuel composition on emissions under dynamic conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Application of Carbon Neutral Fuel in Internal Combustion Engine)

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19 pages, 4409 KB

Open AccessArticle

Numerical and Experimental Research on the Effects of Hydrogen Injection Timing on the Performance of Hydrogen/N-Butanol Dual-Fuel Engine with Hydrogen Direct Injection

by Weiwei Shang, Xintong Shi, Zezhou Guo and Xiaoxue Xing

Energies 2025, 18(18), 4987; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18184987 - 19 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 939

Abstract

Hydrogen injection timing (HIT) plays a crucial role in the combustion and emission characteristics of a hydrogen/n-butanol dual-fuel engine with hydrogen direct injection. This study employed an integrated approach combining three-dimensional simulation modeling and engine test bench experiments to investigate the effects of HIT on engine performance. In order to have a more intuitive understanding of the physical and chemical change processes, such as the stratification state and combustion status of hydrogen in the cylinder, and to essentially explore the internal mechanism and fundamental reasons for the improvement in performance of n-butanol engines by hydrogen addition, a numerical study was conducted to examine the effects of HIT on hydrogen stratification and combustion behavior. The simulation results demonstrated that within the investigated range, at 100 °CA BTDC hydrogen injection time, hydrogen forms an ideal hydrogen stratification state in the cylinder; that is, a locally enriched hydrogen zone near the spark plug, while there is a certain distribution of hydrogen in the cylinder. Meanwhile, the combustion state also reaches the optimal level at this hydrogen injection moment. Consequently, 100 °CA BTDC is identified as the optimal HIT for a hydrogen/n-butanol dual-fuel engine. At the same time, an experimental study was performed to capture the actual complex processes and comprehensively evaluate combustion and emission characteristics. The experimental results indicate that both dynamic performance (torque) and combustion characteristics (cylinder pressure, flame development period, etc.) achieve optimal values at the HIT of 100 °CA BTDC. Notably, under lean-burn conditions, the combustion parameters exhibit greater sensitivity to HIT. Regarding emissions, the CO and HC emissions initially decreased slightly, then gradually increased with advanced injection timing. The 100 °CA BTDC timing effectively reduced the CO emissions at λ = 0.9 and 1.0. CO emissions at λ = 1.2, and showed minimal sensitivity to the injection timing variations. Therefore, optimized HIT facilitates enhanced combustion efficiency and emission performance in hydrogen-direct-injection n-butanol engines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Application of Carbon Neutral Fuel in Internal Combustion Engine)

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Review

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29 pages, 5878 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review on Laminar Burning Velocity of Ammonia Flames

by Xiao Yang, Zhijian Xiao, Rui Hu and Dongdong Feng

Energies 2025, 18(22), 6000; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18226000 - 15 Nov 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2106

Abstract

As a zero-carbon fuel, ammonia holds significant potential for achieving the “dual carbon” strategic goals. However, its extremely low laminar burning velocity (LBV) limits its direct application in combustion systems. This work systematically reviews the research progress on the LBV of ammonia flames, focusing on three key aspects: measurement methods, effects of combustion conditions, and reaction kinetic models. In terms of measurement methods, the principles, applicability, and limitations of the spherical outwardly propagating flame method, Bunsen-burner method, counter-flow flame method, and heat flux method are discussed in detail. It is pointed out that the heat flux method and counter-flow flame method are more suitable for the accurate measurement of ammonia flame LBV due to their low stretch rate and high stability. Regarding the effects of combustion conditions, the LBV characteristics of pure ammonia flames under ambient temperature and pressure are summarized. The influence patterns of three factors on LBV are analyzed systematically: blending high-reactivity fuels (e.g., hydrogen and methane), oxygen-enriched conditions, and variations in temperature and pressure. This analysis reveals effective approaches to improve ammonia combustion performance. Furthermore, the promoting effect of high-reactivity fuel blending on liquid ammonia combustion was also summarized. For reaction kinetic models, various chemical reaction mechanisms applicable to pure ammonia and ammonia-blended fuels (ammonia/hydrogen, ammonia/methane, etc.) are sorted out. The performance and discrepancies of each model in predicting LBV are evaluated. It is noted that current models still have significant uncertainties under specific conditions, such as high pressure and moderate blending ratios. This review aims to provide theoretical references and data support for the fundamental research and engineering application of ammonia combustion, promoting the development and application of ammonia as a clean fuel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Combustion and Application of Carbon Neutral Fuel in Internal Combustion Engine)

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