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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "H2: Geothermal".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 35245

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Prof. Dr. Stefano Mazzoli

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Guest Editor

School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
Interests: structural geology; tectonic evolution of mountain belts; role of inherited structures in fold-thrust belt development and evolution; exhumation processes; applications of structural geology; geo-resources

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Tectonic and structural settings exert a fundamental control on geothermal plays, from the regional plate tectonic framework down to m-size rock volumes within fractured geothermal reservoirs. The geodynamic setting—active plate boundaries, rift zones, sedimentary basins at passive margins, tectonically quiescent cratons, etc.—governs the thermal regime and the associated heat flow. Furthermore, it strongly influences fluid chemistry and flow regimes, with a major impact on hydrogeological processes. Stress regime, major fault zones (active or inactive), and fracture networks are all critical elements for geothermal systems, whose permeability is mainly controlled by fracture aperture and connectivity (which may be increased by stimulation involving opening of pre-existing fractures and/or development of new hydraulic fractures). Fault zones developed in rocks characterized by low primary porosity and permeability are of major significance, as main pathways for fluids may be located in fault damage zones (although transient pathways can also be generated in the fault core during seismic faulting). The pivotal importance of structural geology in geothermal reservoir characterization is well known, as information on the fracture attributes and 3D fracture network parameters are key in order to perform fluid flow simulations and, when appropriate, suggest suitable stimulations for a given reservoir. However, planning of a potential onshore drilling site also involves detailed geological mapping coupled with remote sensing (in order to define major joint systems and/or fault zones at the surface). Subsurface information (existing wells, seismic profiles and other geophysical data) is also commonly integrated in the structural model. The availability of a large amount of subsurface data gathered by the oil industry may be very relevant in some areas, particularly in view of future development of offshore geothermal projects.

Based on the foregoing framework, this Special Issue welcomes papers on a wide range of topics, including exploration case studies integrating geological mapping and/or seismic interpretation and fluid–rock interaction/thermal constraints, fracture analysis performed on outcropping reservoir analogues, numerical models of hydrofracturing, numerical modeling of the tectonothermal setting of crustal volumes, studies of exhumed (fossil) geothermal systems, etc.

Prof. Dr. Stefano Mazzoli
Guest Editor

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Keywords

fluid pathways
fluid flow
fracture networks
fault zones
fluid–rock interaction
subsurface data
geothermal projects

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 181 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology

by Stefano Mazzoli

Energies 2022, 15(21), 8074; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15218074 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1652

Abstract

Structural geology has a long tradition of applications and developments in the field of energy resources [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

Research

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36 pages, 165479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transport of Geothermal Fluids along Dikes and Fault Zones

by Agust Gudmundsson

Energies 2022, 15(19), 7106; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15197106 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3286

Abstract

Field observations of active and fossil natural geothermal fields indicate that geothermal fluids are primarily transported along dikes and fault zones. Fluid transport along dikes (commonly through fractures at their margins) is controlled by the cubic law where the volumetric flow rate depends on the aperture of the fracture in the 3rd power. Dikes (and inclined sheets) also act as heat sources for geothermal fields. In high-temperature fields in volcanoes in Iceland dikes and inclined sheets constitute 80–100% of the rock at crustal depths of 1.5–2 km. Holocene feeder-dikes are known to have increased the activity of associated geothermal fields. Fault zones transport geothermal fluids along their two main hydromechanical units, the core and the damage zone. The core is comparatively thin and primarily composed of breccia, gouge, and clay and related low-permeability porous materials. By contrast, the fault damage zone is characterised by fractures whose frequency is normally highest at the contact between the core and the damage zone. Fluid transport in the damage zone, and in the core following fault slip, is controlled by the cubic law. During non-slip periods fluid transport in the core is primarily controlled by Darcy’s law. Secondary mineralisation (forming mineral veins and amygdales) tends to reduce the fault-zone permeability. Repeated earthquake activity is thus needed to maintain the permeability of fault zones in active natural geothermal fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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13 pages, 2000 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of the 2010 Maule Megathrust Earthquake to the Heat Flow at the Peru-Chile Trench

by Michele Dragoni and Stefano Santini

Energies 2022, 15(6), 2253; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15062253 - 19 Mar 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1845

Abstract

The 2010 Maule earthquake was a megathrust event that occurred along the Peru–Chile Trench. The earthquake source can be modelled as a fault with two asperities with different areas and strengths. By employing a discrete fault model, where asperities are the basic elements, the event can be described as a sequence of three dynamic modes involving simultaneous asperity slip. Interaction between asperities by mutual stress transfer plays a crucial role during fault slip. With a careful choice of values for the model parameters, the mode durations, the slip distribution, the seismic moment rate and the final moment calculated from the model are found to be consistent with the observed values. An important amount of frictional heat is produced by an event of this size and is calculated by summing up the contributions of each asperity. The seismic event produces a heat pulse propagating through the Earth’s crust and contributing to the average heat flow in the region. The calculated heat production is equal to about

2 \times 10^{17}

J and the peak value of the heat pulse is equal to

6 \times 10^{- 3}

mW m

^{- 2}

or about

10^{- 4}

of the average surface heat flow density, with a characteristic diffusion time in the order of

10^{6}

a. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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30 pages, 7963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structural Architecture and Permeability Patterns of Crystalline Reservoir Rocks in the Northern Upper Rhine Graben: Insights from Surface Analogues of the Odenwald

by Claire Bossennec, Lukas Seib, Matthis Frey, Jeroen van der Vaart and Ingo Sass

Energies 2022, 15(4), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041310 - 11 Feb 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4101

Abstract

Fracture network is a crucial element to address in any model of the thermo-hydro-mechanical behaviour of a reservoir rock. This study aims to provide quantified datasets and a further understanding of the critical parameters of the fracture network pattern in crystalline rocks. In the Northern Upper Rhine Graben, such rock units are targeted for multiple energy applications, from deep geothermal heat extraction to heat storage. Eleven outcrops were investigated with a combined LiDAR and 2D profiles analysis to extract faults and fracture network geometrical parameters, including length distribution, orientation, connectivity, and topology. These properties are used to decipher the structural architecture and estimate the flow properties of crystalline units. Fracture networks show a multi-scale power-law behaviour for length distribution. Fracture topology and orientation are mainly driven by both fault networks and lithology. Fracture apertures and permeability tensors were then calculated for two application case studies, including the stress field effect on aperture. Obtained permeabilities are in the range of those observed in the sub-surface in currently exploited reservoirs. The dataset provided in this study is thus suitable to be implemented in the modelling during the exploration stage of industrial applications involving fractured crystalline reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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18 pages, 5292 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Controls of Radiogenic Heat and Moho Geometry on the Thermal Setting of the Marche Region (Central Italy): An Analytical 3D Geothermal Model

by Stefano Santini, Matteo Basilici, Chiara Invernizzi, Danica Jablonska, Stefano Mazzoli, Antonella Megna and Pietro Paolo Pierantoni

Energies 2021, 14(20), 6511; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14206511 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2338

Abstract

Using published cross-sections and a series of geological constraints, a 3D geological model of an important area of the Adriatic sector of peninsular Italy—i.e., the Marche region—was developed. Then, an analytical procedure, taking into account the heat rising from the mantle and the radiogenic heat produced by the crust, was applied on the pre-built structural model, in order to obtain the 3D geothermal setting of the entire region. The results highlighted the key role played by the Moho geometry, particularly as a step of ~10 km occurs between the Adriatic Moho of the subducting plate to the west and the new Tyrrhenian Moho characterizing the back-arc area to the west. The comparison between our results and available borehole data suggests a good fit between the applied analytical methodology and published datasets. A visible anomaly is located at a specific site (i.e., the coastal town of Senigallia), where it may be envisaged that fluid circulation produced a local surface heat flow increase; this makes the Senigallia area a promising feature for the possible exploitation of geothermal systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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27 pages, 10197 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fossil vs. Active Geothermal Systems: A Field and Laboratory Method to Disclose the Relationships between Geothermal Fluid Flow and Geological Structures at Depth

by Domenico Liotta, Andrea Brogi, Giovanni Ruggieri and Martina Zucchi

Energies 2021, 14(4), 933; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040933 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4031

Abstract

Comparison between fossil and analogue active geothermal systems permit to obtain key-parameters to define a conceptual model of the area under exploration. The approach is based on structural, kinematic, and fluid inclusions analyses. The fossil system is investigated to describe the distribution of the hydrothermal mineralization as witness of the fluid flow through geological structures and bodies, at depth. Structural and kinematic data (to define the preferential direction of fluid flow) are collected in structural stations and by scan lines and scan boxes on key outcrops. Distribution, length, width of fractures, and hydrothermal veins bring to evaluate permeability in the fossil system and, by analogy, in the deep roots of the active system. Fluid inclusions analysis shed light on density, viscosity, and temperature of the paleo-fluids. Data integration provides the hydraulic conductivity. In active geothermal systems, fieldwork is addressed to paleo-stress analysis with data from recent faults (<2 Ma), to compare with local focal mechanisms. By this, indications on the present fluid pathways are given. The main advantage resides in obtaining parameters normally got after drilling, thus contributing to strengthen the strategy of exploration, de-risking unsuccessful boreholes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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37 pages, 9263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Geothermal Heating Potential for the Communities of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin

by Jacek Majorowicz and Stephen E. Grasby

Energies 2021, 14(3), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030706 - 30 Jan 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5524

Abstract

We summarize the feasibility of using geothermal energy from the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) to support communities with populations >3000 people, including those in northeastern British Columbia, southwestern part of Northwest Territories (NWT), southern Saskatchewan, and southeastern Manitoba, along with previously studied communities in Alberta. The geothermal energy potential of the WCSB is largely determined by the basin’s geometry; the sediments start at 0 m thickness adjacent to the Canadian shield in the east and thicken to >6 km to the west, and over 3 km in the Williston sub-basin to the south. Direct heat use is most promising in the western and southern parts of the WCSB where sediment thickness exceeds 2–3 km. Geothermal potential is also dependent on the local geothermal gradient. Aquifers suitable for heating systems occur in western-northwestern Alberta, northeastern British Columbia, and southwestern Saskatchewan. Electrical power production is limited to the deepest parts of the WCSB, where aquifers >120 °C and fluid production rates >80 kg/s occur (southwestern Northwest Territories, northwestern Alberta, northeastern British Columbia, and southeastern Saskatchewan. For the western regions with the thickest sediments, the foreland basin east of the Rocky Mountains, estimates indicate that geothermal power up to 2 MW_el. (electrical), and up to 10 times higher for heating in MW_th. (thermal), are possible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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19 pages, 6701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Structure of the Northern Outer Albanides and Adjacent Adriatic Crustal Sector, and Implications for Geothermal Energy Systems

by Stefano Santini, Matteo Basilici, Chiara Invernizzi, Stefano Mazzoli, Antonella Megna, Pietro Paolo Pierantoni, Vincenzo Spina and Simone Teloni

Energies 2020, 13(22), 6028; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13226028 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2462

Abstract

Using an analytical methodology taking into account heat flow density data, frictional heating, temperature variations due to the re-equilibrated conductive state after thrusting and geological constrains, we calculated surface heat flow, geotherms and isotherms along a balanced and restored regional geological cross-section. Our results highlight the impact of frictional heating produced by thrusts on the thermal structure of the study area, leading to a raising of the isotherms both in the inner Albanides to the E and in the Adriatic sector offshore. Minimum values of

Q_{s}

in the surroundings of Tirana and the reconstructed 2D thermal structure suggest less favorable conditions for exploitation of geothermal energy, besides the direct use (Borehole Heat Exchanger-Geothermal Heat Pump systems). Nevertheless, the occurrence of the “Kruja geothermal zone”, partially overlapping this area and including hot spring manifestations, emphasize the structural control in driving hot fluids to the surface with respect to the regional thermal structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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19 pages, 8031 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geological Map of the Tocomar Basin (Puna Plateau, NW Argentina). Implication for the Geothermal System Investigation

by Rubén Filipovich, Walter Báez, Gianluca Groppelli, Florencia Ahumada, Luca Aldega, Raúl Becchio, Gabriele Berardi, Sabina Bigi, Chiara Caricchi, Agostina Chiodi, Sveva Corrado, Gianfilippo De Astis, Arnaldo A. De Benedetti, Chiara Invernizzi, Gianluca Norini, Michele Soligo, Sara Taviani, José G. Viramonte and Guido Giordano

Energies 2020, 13(20), 5492; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13205492 - 20 Oct 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3994

Abstract

This paper presents a detailed geological map at the 1:20,000 scale of the Tocomar basin in the Central Puna (north-western Argentina), which extends over an area of about 80 km² and displays the spatial distribution of the Quaternary deposits and the structures that cover the Ordovician basement and the Tertiary sedimentary and volcanic units. The new dataset includes litho-facies descriptions, stratigraphic and structural data and new ²³⁴U/²³⁰Th ages for travertine rocks. The new reconstructed stratigraphic framework, along with the structural analysis, has revealed the complex evolution of a small extensional basin including a period of prolonged volcanic activity with different eruptive centres and styles. The geological map improves the knowledge of the geology of the Tocomar basin and the local interplay between orogen-parallel thrusts and orogen-oblique fault systems. This contribution represents a fundamental support for in depth research and also for encouraging geothermal exploration and exploitation in the Puna Plateau region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

17 pages, 9679 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review of the Heat Flow Mapping in Polish Sedimentary Basin across Different Tectonic Terrains

by Jacek Majorowicz

Energies 2021, 14(19), 6103; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196103 - 24 Sep 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2548

Abstract

Heat flow patterns variability related to the age of the consolidated, and differences in, sedimentary thickness of the sedimentary succession are important constraints upon the thermal state of the sedimentary fill and its geothermal energy potential. Heat flow in the Permian basin of central Europe varies from a low of 40 mWm⁻² in the Precambrian Platform to 80 mWm⁻² in the Paleozoic basement platform influencing temperature for geothermal potential drilling depth. Continuity of thermal patterns and compatibility of heat flow Q across the Permian basin across the Polish–German basin was known from heat flow data ever since the first heat flow map of Europe in 1979. Both Polish and German heat flow determinations used lab-measured thermal conductivity on cores. This is not the case for the recent heat flow map of Poland published in 2009 widely referenced in Polish geological literature. Significant differences in heat flow magnitude exist between many historical heat flow maps of Poland over the 1970s–1990s and recent 21st century patterns. We find that the differences in heat flow values of some 20–30 mWm⁻² in Western Poland exist between heat flow maps using thermal conductivity models using well log interpreted mineral and porosity content and assigned world averages of rock and fluid thermal conductivity versus those measured on cores. These differences in heat flow are discussed in the context of resulting mantle heat flow and the Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Boundary depth modelled differences and possible overestimates of deep thermal conditions for enhanced geothermal energy prospects in Poland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)

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