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Article

Deep Geothermal Heating Potential for the Communities of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin

by
Jacek Majorowicz
1,2,* and
Stephen E. Grasby
3
1
Northern Geothermal Cons, Edmonton, AB T6R2J8, Canada
2
Department of Physics, University of Alberta, 11322-89 Ave., Edmonton, AB T6G 2G7, Canada
3
Geological Survey of Canada, 3303 33 St NW, Calgary, AB T2L 2A7, Canada
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2021, 14(3), 706; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030706
Submission received: 27 December 2020 / Revised: 25 January 2021 / Accepted: 27 January 2021 / Published: 30 January 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geothermal Energy and Structural Geology)
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Abstract

We summarize the feasibility of using geothermal energy from the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) to support communities with populations >3000 people, including those in northeastern British Columbia, southwestern part of Northwest Territories (NWT), southern Saskatchewan, and southeastern Manitoba, along with previously studied communities in Alberta. The geothermal energy potential of the WCSB is largely determined by the basin’s geometry; the sediments start at 0 m thickness adjacent to the Canadian shield in the east and thicken to >6 km to the west, and over 3 km in the Williston sub-basin to the south. Direct heat use is most promising in the western and southern parts of the WCSB where sediment thickness exceeds 2–3 km. Geothermal potential is also dependent on the local geothermal gradient. Aquifers suitable for heating systems occur in western-northwestern Alberta, northeastern British Columbia, and southwestern Saskatchewan. Electrical power production is limited to the deepest parts of the WCSB, where aquifers >120 °C and fluid production rates >80 kg/s occur (southwestern Northwest Territories, northwestern Alberta, northeastern British Columbia, and southeastern Saskatchewan. For the western regions with the thickest sediments, the foreland basin east of the Rocky Mountains, estimates indicate that geothermal power up to 2 MWel. (electrical), and up to 10 times higher for heating in MWth. (thermal), are possible.

1. Introduction

Direct heating with geothermal energy could provide an important energy resource in cold climate regions, such as the Canadian prairie provinces where heating accounts for 80% of the total energy demand. Sedimentary basins, such as the Western Canadian Sedimentary basin (WCSB), hold significant heat that could be used to support communities overlying the basin. Direct use geothermal energy is commonly used for district heating systems [1,2,3,4]. Typically, district heating systems require temperatures >60 °C and fluid production rates >30 kg/s, using two or more geothermal wells with at least one production well and one injection well [5].
District heating systems could significantly reduce CO2 emissions by replacing gas and oil combustion with renewable energy resources [6,7,8,9,10,11]. The WCSB contains large geothermal energy reserves, with temperatures reaching over 160 °C. About half of the basin area is >2 km deep, with measured temperatures >60 °C [11,12,13,14,15,16].
Previous studies of the WCSB examined both direct heating energy, in GJ per year, and potential electrical power generation (MW electrical), but for only the province of Alberta [17]. We expand on this previous work by examining geothermal potential for all communities with populations >3000 people that overly the WCSB, adding geothermal energy calculations for northeastern British Columbia, Saskatchewan, southern Manitoba, and southwestern NWT (see location of the study area in Figure 1 and location of the municipalities in Figure 2). Maps specific to these new assessment areas are presented in Appendixes A and Appendixes B, while combined maps for the entire WCSB are presented here. Calculated geothermal potential for specific communities are in tables in Appendix C. These tables include geothermal energy available assuming an average energy use of 130 GJ/year, enthalpy, calculated formation temperature, and the drill depth required for calculated temperatures.

2. Background

Geothermal production of electrical power, through the Organic Rankin (ORC) or Kalina cycle (KC), needs to be in the vicinity of an existing power grid to be economical. Such infrastructure is available in some remote areas as already shown by wind-based power production in Alberta. However, the low ~10% efficiency of ORC and KC power plants is a limiting factor, making only high enthalpy regions of interest for electrical potential, such as the deepest parts of the WCSB in Alberta and southern Saskatchewan [11]. However, “The Alberta Climate Leadership Plan” goal of replacing 5000 megawatts of coal-generated electricity with power coming from renewable sources by the year 2030 is daunting. Electrical power from geothermal sources would require thousands of geothermal doublet well installations, while two well systems with 1–2 MW potential is feasible in only limited areas (see Tables in Appendix C). The cost of geothermal wells to produce sufficient electricity would be upwards of $50 billion dollars for 1000 systems [7]. District heating (DH) may therefore be the most feasible use of geothermal resources in cold climate regions such as the Canadian prairie provinces. This also comes with challenges though.
Transmitting hot fluids over large distances comes with significant energy loss, which means that to be useful, DH projects must be as close to a community as possible [18,19]. Modelling by Kapil et al. [19] indicates that there is an ~1% heat loss for every km of insulated pipe distance. However, the Kapil et al. [19] model did not consider the cost for pump operation to determine the economically feasible distance of heat transmission. Later work shows that distance needs to be even smaller for DH systems. Economic constraints mean that high enthalpy, high temperature (120–250 °C) [20], steam can be transported 3–5 km, water with temperatures 90–175 °C some 30 km, and waters with lower grade heat [21], ~15 km [18].

3. Structural Setting of the WCSB

The WCSB underly 1,400,000 km2 of Western Canada, (southwestern Manitoba, southern Saskatchewan, Alberta, northeastern British Columbia (BC) and the southwest corner of the Northwest Territories (NWT)). A massive wedge of sedimentary rock extends from the Rocky Mountains (Canadian Cordillera) in the west, to the Canadian Shield in the east. This wedge is about 6 km thick at the deepest part of the basin bordering the Cordillera but thins to zero m at its eastern margins in Manitoba, northeastern Saskatchewan, and southwestern NWT (see Figure 3 below). A geological cross-section perpendicular to the basin’s strike shows the general configuration of the Pre-Cambrian basement and overlying sedimentary formations. We show in Figure 3 that a 2 km drilling depth will reach 60–70 °C fluids according to [22], while a 3 km depth will reach some 90–100 °C.
A generalized stratigraphic column of the WCSB is also shown in Figure 3. Table 1 lists the Geological Period from Cretaceous down to Cambrian and the formations that are known to have significant permeability [15]. The tops of these formations and groups, their thickness maps and cross- sections, are readily available from the Alberta Geological Survey (AGS) online: <https://ags.aer.ca/reports/atlas-western-canada-sedimentary-basin>. The geological information is not repeated here as we focus on the thermal conditions of most the most prospective sedimentary groups.

4. Geothermal Gradient and Maximum Temperatures—WCSB

The heat flow Q map of the study area [10,23] is plotted in Figure 4. Locations of municipalities studied here, those with populations > 3000 people, are shown on a map of average geothermal gradient (Grad T(z), where T—temperature, z—depth) of the WCSB in Figure 5. The map of Grad T(z) is based on industrial temperature logs, corrected bottom hole temperature data, drill stem test temperature records, and shut-in wells temperature data from tens of thousands of boreholes drilled for oil and gas [9,16,23,24].
Most of the municipalities are in the southern part of the WCSB, where thermal gradients are low (20 °C/km) to moderate (30–45 °C/km) in southern Alberta. The central western part of basin is >2.5 km deep and has elevated GradT(z) of >35 °C/km. In southeastern Saskatchewan, the basin has an elevated Grad T(z) of 40 °C/km. The northwestern part of the basin has just a few communities, like Fort Nelson and Fort Liard, which occur in areas of elevated GradT(z) (40–50 °C/km). Geothermal gradients of 35–50 °C/km for large parts of the WCSB are high compared to other sedimentary basins worldwide [25].
The Precambrian basement which underlies the WCSB has radiogenic heat generation two times higher than in outcrops of the correlative Canadian Shield [23,24,25,26]. Radiogenic heat production (A) [μW/m3] in the Precambrian basement underlying the WCSB shows large variability but averages 2.1–2.4 μW/m3. This explains the higher heat flow of the WCSB as compared to the Canadian Shield to the east.
The temperature distribution in sediments of the WCSB is determined from ground surface temperature records [27], the WCSB heat flow Q map [16,23], and the WCSB thermal conductivity k map [23]. Some 40–50% of Q is from radiogenic heat in the crust and 50–60% comes from deeper sources in continental settings [28,29,30]. The review of Epelbaum et al. [31] suggests mantle heat flow is in the order of 15–84% of total. Heat flow determinations in Canada are based on single heat flow determinations in wells and group of wells from industrial temperature records. Some areas thus lack data (Figure 4) due to its remoteness and/or lack of drilling [10]. While the North America heat flow map extrapolates over large areas of Canada with no data [32], these regions are shown in white here.
The only high precision deep (>1 km) heat flow results in the WCSB are from the deep (2.3 km) Hunt well near Fort McMurray (Figure 5), that shows surface heat flow of Q = 57 mWm–2 [33], significantly higher than Q in the Canadian Shield to the east (44 ± 7 mWm–2, [25]). This result is interpreted as being related to the high average A of 2.9 μWm–3 in the upper granitic crust of the well [33]. The rest of heat flow data for the WCSB come from thousands of single depth bottom hole and drill stem test temperatures and effective thermal conductivity estimates based on net rock data and measured rock conductivities of typical lithologies [10,12,16,23].
Since geothermal gradient is defined by Equation (1):
GradT(z) = Q/k
Thermal conductivity k will control Grad T(z) at constant heat flow Q. Thermal conductivity of the sedimentary fill (ksed) of the WCSB was studied for sedimentary rocks and a map of ksed pattern was constructed [23]. Thermal conductivity of sediments ksed. of Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and upper to lower Paleozoic rocks varies in relationship with the overall composition from low k of shales (1.2 W/m K) to high k of carbonates (3 W/m K), quartzite sediments (4–6 W/m K), and salt (7 W/m K). The variability in the thickness of lithostratigraphic units, changes in sedimentary facies, and the presence or absence of sedimentary units, results in variability of net k with depth. Calculated ksed. shows a trend of increasing eastward towards the shield. Some very low k zones, like in the northwestern Alberta-BC part of the basin (ksed. = 1.4–1.6 W/m K), can explain some of the highest GradT observed in the WCSB (Figure 5). Very high integrated ksed. (2.6–2.8 W/m K) in the eastern shallow parts of the WCSB are close to the k of underlying Precambrian basement, explaining the low temperatures at depth in those areas [22]. The areas with the lowest net k are prospective for high temperature geothermal systems, as the rate of temperature increase with depth are the highest for constant heat flow (Equation (1)). The highest heat flow-lowest ksed. areas have the highest temperatures and thermal heat storage. In general, the westward increasing thickness of the WCSB, and decreasing net ksed. increases available thermal energy.
Below the WCSB, the average k of basement rocks [26] is significantly higher. The highest average conductivity is that of igneous rocks (3.4 W/m K N = 56) and then metamorphic rocks (3.2 W/m K, N = 146). At the observed average heat flow of the Alberta basin (70 m W/m2) this would cause changes in the geothermal gradient below the Pre-Cambrian surface of 28 °C/km to 19 °C/km, respectively.

5. Geothermal Energy Calculation

We calculated geothermal energy for each of the municipalities in our study area. An outflow fluid temperature of 60 °C was assumed for geothermal heating systems based on the upper limit of the Paris DH system [2,4]. For electrical production we assumed 50–60 °C for an ORC electrical power plant system according to Tester et al. [5]. The range of the feasible net geothermal heat and geothermal electrical power production was calculated using parameters from Table 2 and temperatures derived from maps in Figure 6 and Figure 7a–d. In previous geothermal assessments the specific heat capacity (Cw) of low salinity waters was used (4200 J/kg/K in [11]. Here we adjusted Cw to lower values (3150 J/(kg K)—3993 J/(kg K)), [34] that more accurately reflect the brines which occur in the most perspective geological formations we examined [6,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42]. To calculate these Cw values we used the MIT charts [34]. Feasible flow rates used were based on various published pumping test results for the WCSB, as well as in analogous basins in the USA and Germany, as summarized by Majorowicz and Grasby [11].

6. WCSB Prospects—Summary

The map of communities vs. highest available temperatures at the base of the Phanerozoic of the WCSB, above the Precambrian basement, is shown in Figure 6. Similar maps are also shown for the Middle Cambrian and Upper Cambrian, Devonian Granite Wash Formation (Figure 6), base of Beaverhill Lake Group (Figure 7a), top of the Upper Devonian Winterburn Group (Figure 7b), top of Mississippian formations (Figure 7c), and at the sub-Mannville unconformity (Figure 7d).
For most of the study area, the highest temperature zones are found in the deep foreland basin adjacent to the Rocky Mountains in western Alberta [15,39,40] and in the Williston sub-basin of southern Saskatchewan. The calculated geothermal energy is shown in Table A3 (Appendix C). Results in Table A2 (Appendix C) show that temperatures >80 °C can be found in the Upper Devonian Beaverhill Lake Group [15,41]. Other potential formations with geothermal feasibility include the Woodbend Group’s Grossmond karstic dolomites, Cooking Lake dolomites, the Beaverhill Lake‘s Group Swan Hill Formation, Slave Lake Formation, and the Elk Point’s Group Pine Point Formation [15]. The Winterburn Group, and Wabamun and Nisku formations geothermal prospects for heating and electrical power are shown in Table A5. The Wabamun group’s partly porous dolomites [15], and Winterburn group’s Nisku Formation sandstones and limestones [15] have sufficient temperatures (Figure 7) to form geothermal energy prospects west of Edson and to the northwest towards Grande Cache (Table A3). The Mississippian Rundle Group’s dolostones and limestones, Charles Formation dolostones and limestones, and Banff Formation limestones [15] are all in the >80 °C temperature zone in the deepest western part of the WCSB in Alberta (Figure 7c). The calculated energy, power and enthalpy gains for these units are shown in Table A4 (Appendix C). Low to mid-enthalpy potential for geothermal hot saline fluids also exists for the Cretaceous Mannville Group sediments and Cadomin Formation sandstone & conglomerates, as found by Lam and Jones, [37], in the deepest parts of the WCSB in the Edson-Hinton area. The sub-Manville unconformity temperature distribution in Figure 7d shows temperatures >70 °C that are useable for geothermal heating for the towns of Drayton Valley, Edson, and Rocky Mountain House (Table A5 (Appendix C)).

7. Discussion of Results

A summary of results is presented in Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4 and Table A5 in Appendix C. Results show that there are many municipalities that could potentially exploit deep geothermal heat reserves, and fewer cases for electrical production (Fort Liard NWT: Hinton Alberta, Estevan Saskatchewan). However, there are many regions of the WCSB with good electrical potential, but without nearby populated areas, which would increase transmission costs.
Analysis of geothermal feasibility for municipalities show that geothermal heat is available from several geological formations (Table A4 and Table A5 and Figure 6 and Figure 7c,d). In parts of the deep basin in western Alberta, the Granite Wash, Middle Cambrian basal sandstone, Winnipegoisis, and Deadwood formations [15,39,40,41,42] reach temperatures of 140–170 °C close to the municipalities of Hinton, Edson, Grand Prairie, Rocky Mountain House, and Whitecourt (Table A3). Temperatures >90 °C (Figure 7a) are also found for the BeaverHill Lake Group (Table A2). Temperatures sufficient or direct heating prospects occur in the Devonian Winterburn/Wabamun groups (Figure 7b; Table A3). Temperatures >70 °C are found in western Alberta in the Rundle Group’s Charles Formation dolostones and limestones, as well as Banff Formation limestones) (Table A4).
In Table A5 we summarize energy calculations for the formations above the sub-Manville unconformity. The potential for geothermal hot saline fluids exists for the Mannville and Cadomin sandstones and conglomerates. As we move from deep formations above the Precambrian surface up towards shallower formations, like the Mississippian and/or Mannville prospects for direct heating, many municipalities’ drop off the list (Table A4 and Table A5) due to too low local temperatures for DH systems (<70 °C) or that the municipality lies outside of the formation sub-crop boundaries in the eastern and northeastern parts of the WCSB (see Table A3 and Table A4).
Depending on the temperature of deep aquifers T (°C) and production rates (kg/s) (Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4 and Table A5) there is a whole range of possibilities to use geothermal energy for direct heating. The calculated number of households feasible to be heated by a direct deep-aquifer sourced geothermal energy is in 100 s to 1000 s for Alberta, BC, and NWT, as well as deep parts of the Williston Basin sub-basin in southern Saskatchewan.
The calculated enthalpy gains for all the communities overlying the WCSB are given in Appendix C Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4 and Table A5 and they are ranked 1–5 as listed below [43]:
  • Very low enthalpy gain <80 kJ/kg—aquifer,
  • Low to Medium enthalpy (80–200) kJ/kg—Geothermal heat prospects with uplift by heat pumps
  • Medium enthalpy prospects (200–320) kJ/kg—Prospects for direct deep aquifer source based geothermal heating.
  • High enthalpy (320–520 kJ/kg)—Very good direct heat prospects, marginal EGS geothermal electrical power prospects.
  • Very high enthalpy (>520 kJ/kg)—Electrical power and direct heating prospects.
High to very high enthalpy ranking (4–5) was calculated for the deepest portions of the WCSB (Appendix C Table A1, Table A2 and Table A3). The highest ranked prospect area (rank 5) occurs in the northern and western parts of the WCSB, in the Hinton area west of Edson, Alberta, and in Fort Liard NWT. High enthalpy (4) is found in central-western Alberta (municipalities of Grand Prairie, Whitecourt, Wetaskiwin, Lacombe, Red Deer, Blackfalds, Panoka, Rocky Mountain House, Penhold, Devon, and Drayton Valley), north eastern BC (Dawson Creek, Fort St. John, and Fort Nelson) and southeastern Saskatchewan (Estevan area). Medium enthalpy (Ranked 3) geothermal heating is most common in the 2–3 km deep parts of the basin in Alberta and southern Saskatchewan. In the shallow parts of the basin (see Table A4 and Table A5, lifting of fluid temperature would be needed before direct heating applications could be considered (lifting fluid temperature by heat exchanger from 40 to 50 °C to at least 70 °C, and or heat pumps would be required).

8. Conclusions

The economics of two well systems—producer and reinjection—will depend on drilling cost (increasing exponentially with depth), efficiency of the geothermal power plants (usually very low 10+/−3%), or of heat exchangers (~90%) for geothermal heating. The electrical power required for pumps for moving fluids through a two-well system (producer and injector wells) and moving fluids through surface piping and the geothermal plant, has been assessed to vary between 0.1 and 0.7 MW electrical [11]. In the WCSB the required drilling depth to get >70 °C resources is on average 2 km, and this increases to >3.7 km for electric power at >120 °C (Figure 8).
The costs of drilling geothermal wells can be calculated from the equation given by Lukawski et al. [44], with a correlation coefficient of 0.92:
Geothermal well cost = 1.72 × 10−7 × (z)2 + 2.3 × 10−3 × z – 0.62
where cost is in ($) and z(m) is depth of well. The geothermal wells drilling cost is higher than these of oil and gas [43].
In Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4 and Table A5 in Appendix C we gave depths to be drilled to prospective geothermal formations. There are few communities with good prospects at depths less than 2 km. Drilling a well to 2–3 km (see depth to drill against geological cross section WCSB in Figure 2) would be expensive, $4.7 to 8 m per borehole, and two wells are needed for a doublet geothermal system. Geothermal electrical power production by low efficiency (some 10% +/− 3%) geothermal power plants requires >120 °C and preferably >150 °C. Such projects would require 4–5 km drilling depth costing $11–15 m, respectively. This means usually that the drilling cost per one MW electrical would be some $15 m for the best cases we show in Table A1, Table A2 and Table A3. This high drilling cost limits prospects for economic geothermal electrical power to best case scenarios under current drilling technology. Such high cost per MWelectrical would not be competitive with wind that has a typical cost of $3–5 million per megawatt (MW) of electricity-producing capacity. However, geothermal provides baseload power supply that may make the higher cost for reliable generation more attractive.
Municipalities with potentiall for heat energy production, heating >1 k households, are highlighted in Appendix C Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4 and Table A5. These are recommended to be explored first. Large areas of the WCSB are outside the prospects for deep heat for direct heating. These are in many cases areas with temperatures that are still suitable for low enthalpy geothermal heat use. They are temperature <60 °C and shallower depths for drilling (<2 km). Lower enthalpy geothermal sites would be still good for geothermal heating using non-direct techniques, including heat pumps for the lowest enthalpy shallow basin locations. Heat pumps require external energy like electrical power which would require connection with other renewables. Geothermal heating greenhouses could be an opportunity to be explored next.
We showed that direct heating by geothermal energy is most promising for deeper parts of the WCSB in the central and western parts of Alberta, northeastern British Columbia, southern Saskatchewan, and southwestern NWT, where >70 °C aquifers with the prospect of >30 kg/s production rates are feasible. Power production is possible near only a limited number of communities, including the Hinton-Edson—Grand Prairie area in Alberta, Fort Liard in southwestern NWT, and Weyburn-Estevan in southern Saskatchewan. Electrical power from geothermal is between single decimals of MW electrical and up to 3 MW electrical (see our calculations in Table A1) assuming a maximum flow rates of 80 kg/s. However, horizontal wells in target horizons promise to increase potential production rates that could make power production more viable in areas of suitable temperatures as in the ongoing DEEP project [45,46,47,48].
The above calculations of heat and electrical power that is feasible to produce from geothermal sources are first order estimates due to uncertainty in production rates. There are several approaches we used to assess reasonable production rates. We took the most probable range of required flow rates (30–80 Kg/s) based on real pumping test data [11,35], estimates based on hydraulic head and permeability data [37,38,42], as well as examination of thousands of pumping and reinjecting tests through the WCSB [35]. Fluid production rates required to achieve different levels of energy production were calculated by others, [49,50]. To produce 1MWelectric the flow rate should be from 30 to 60 kg/s for the northwestern British Columbia part of the WCSB, according to Palmer-Wilson et al. [50]. It makes good sense if the geothermal two-well systems are to be engineered by EGS, to enhance permeability and flow [5].
Further research is recommended that focuses on the geothermal potential of specific municipalities based on more in-depth analyses of local geothermal and geologic conditions. In particular, aquifer parameters require further study given their heterogeneous nature, making it difficult to predict local hydrogeological properties.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.M. and S.E.G.; methodology, J.M.; software, J.M.; validation, J.M., S.E.G.; formal analysis, J.M.; investigation, J.M.; resources, J.M.; data curation, J.M.; writing—original draft preparation, J.M.; writing—review and editing, S.E.G.; visualization, J.M.; supervision, S.E.G.; project administration, S.E.G.; funding acquisition, S.E.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data in Appendix C Tables will be available upon request from the first author.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank three anonymous reviewers for their useful comments. We acknowledge GSC Calgary for support. First Author acknowledge Helmholtz Alberta Initiative University of Alberta project and especially to colleagues: Martyn Unsworth, Simon Weides, Greg Nieuwenhuis; and Tibor Lengyel whose cooperation was essential.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Saskatchewan SE Manitoba municipalities >3 k population against maps of geothermal energy prospects for communities >3 k.
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Figure A1. Geothermal gradient—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
Figure A1. Geothermal gradient—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
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Figure A2. Temperatures top of Precambrian—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
Figure A2. Temperatures top of Precambrian—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
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Figure A3. Temperatures top of BHL Group—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
Figure A3. Temperatures top of BHL Group—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
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Figure A4. Temperatures top of Winterburn Group—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
Figure A4. Temperatures top of Winterburn Group—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
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Figure A5. Temperatures top of Mississippian—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
Figure A5. Temperatures top of Mississippian—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
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Figure A6. Temperatures top of sub-Mannville unconformity—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
Figure A6. Temperatures top of sub-Mannville unconformity—Saskatchewan–Manitoba WCSB.
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Appendix B

NE British Columbia S. NWT geothermal prospects for communities >3 k.
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Figure A7. Geothermal gradient—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
Figure A7. Geothermal gradient—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
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Figure A8. Temperatures top of Precambrian—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
Figure A8. Temperatures top of Precambrian—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
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Figure A9. Temperatures top of BHL Group—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
Figure A9. Temperatures top of BHL Group—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
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Figure A10. Temperatures top Winterburn Group—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
Figure A10. Temperatures top Winterburn Group—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
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Figure A11. Temperatures top of Mississippian—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
Figure A11. Temperatures top of Mississippian—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
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Figure A12. Temperatures top of sub-Mannville Unconformity—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
Figure A12. Temperatures top of sub-Mannville Unconformity—NE British Columbia S. NWT WCSB.
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Appendix C

Tables of results.
The results of calculations for all >3k population cities and towns in the WCSB are shown in Table A1, Table A2, Table A3, Table A4 and Table A5. These Tables show geothermal energy for a range of flow rates (well production rate), specific heat capacity of geothermal brine, the number of direct geothermal heated households feasible for small communities of >3 k to <10 k population at average energy use of 130 GJ/Year at 0.7 yearly uses, enthalpy, and calculated formation temperature and depth required to drill to prospective geological formations at these calculated temperatures.
The best opportunities for geothermal heat use are highlighted in yellow and geothermal power most prospects are highlighted in red.
Table A1. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Deepest basin above the crystalline basement—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct geothermal heated Energy, Enthalpy, Power, No. of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
Table A1. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Deepest basin above the crystalline basement—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct geothermal heated Energy, Enthalpy, Power, No. of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
City LocationProvinceTemperature TEnergy 1Energy 2Energy 3Energy 4Households Households PowerPowerEnthalpy GainFormation GroupDepth
at C = 3993 at C = 3150 at C = 3993 at C = 3150 Minimum Maximum at C = 3993 at C = 3150 at C = 3993
at 30 kg/s at 30 kg/s at 80 kg/s at 80 kg/s number number at 30 kg/s at 80 kg/s
NameName°CGJ YearGJ YearGJ YearGJ Year@ 130 GJ/Year@ 130 GJ/YearMW el.MW el.kJ/kg km
AirdrieAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.7
BanffAB?_________Disturbed belt?
BarrheadAB83.251,12540,331136,333107,55031010490.40.6252M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.6
BattlefordSask.51________124M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.7
BeaumontAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.6
BlackfaldsAB120.25132,770104,740354,054279,30680627230.81.5400M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.25
BonnyvilleAB49________116M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.4
BrooksAB7022,03717,38458,76446,3581344520.20.3200M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.4
CalgaryAB10088,14669,537235,057185,43253518080.61.0319M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.8
CamroseAB8044,07334,768117,52892,7162679040.40.5240M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.4
CanmoreAB40________80RM Def. f._
CardstonAB7022,03717,38458,76446,3581344520.20.3200Disturbed belt fm3.5
CarstairsAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.6
ChestermereAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.7
ClaresholmAB75.634,37727,11991,67272,3182097050.30.4222M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.6
CoaldaleAB62.55509434614,69111,589331130.10.1170M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.5
CochraneAB10088,14669,537235,057185,43253518080.61.0319M. Cambrian Basal Sands.4.1
Cold LakeAB42________88M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.2
Cold LakeAB40________80M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.2
Dawson CreekNE BC137168,580132,989449,546354,638102334581.01.9465M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.9
DevonAB99.987,92669,363234,469184,96853418040.61.0319M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.7
DidsburyAB92.571,61956,499190,984150,66343514690.50.8289M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.7
Drayton ValleyAB119130,016102,567346,709273,51278926670.81.5395M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.4
DrumhellerAB72.928,42722,42675,80659,8021735830.30.3211M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.7
E. LloydminsterSask.51________124M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.7
EdmontonAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.5
EdsonAB147191,718151,243511,248403,314116339331.22.2507M. Cambrian Basal Sands.4.2
EstevanSask.115121,64295,961324,378255,89673824950.81.4380U. Cambrian Deadwood 3.2
Fort LiardNWT170242,402191,226646,406509,937147149721.42.8599M. Cambrian Basal Sands.4.25
Fort NelsonNE BC10496,96176,491258,562203,97558819890.61.1335M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.6
Fort Sask.AB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.4
Fort St. JohnNE BC128149,849118,213399,596315,23490930740.91.7431M. Cambrian Basal Sands.4
Grand CentreAB40.5________82M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.35
Grande CacheAB?_________Disturbed belt fm?
Grande PrairieAB140176,293139,074470,113370,863107036161.12.0479Granite Wash3.7
High RiverAB10088,14669,537235,057185,43253518080.61.0319M. Cambrian Basal Sands.4
HintonAB170242,402191,226646,406509,937147149721.42.8599M. Cambrian Basal Sands.5.6
HumboldtSask.35________60M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.4
InnisfailAB87.560,60147,807161,602127,48436812430.40.7270M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.5
JasperAB?_________Disturbed belt?
KindersleySask.59________157M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.2
LacombeAB120132,219104,305352,585278,14880227120.82.0399M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.2
LangdonAB80.545,17535,638120,46795,0342749270.40.5242M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.5
LeducAB110110,18386,921293,821231,79066922600.72.0359M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.7
LethbridgeAB7022,03717,38458,76446,3581344520.20.3200M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.7
LloydminsterAB50________120M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.7
MalvilleSask.48________112M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.6
MartensvilleSask.45________98M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.65
Meadow LakeSask.35________60M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1
Medicine HatAB60______0.1_160M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.2
MelfordSask.30________40M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1
Moose JawSask.55______0.1_140M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.2
MorinvilleAB10088,14669,537235,057185,43253518080.61.0319M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.4
North BattlefordSask.50________118M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.65
OldsAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.6
Peace RiverAB67.215,86612,51742,31033,378963250.20.2188Devonian Granite Wash2.1
PenholdAB95.277,56961,192206,850163,18047115910.50.9300M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.4
Pincher CreekAB89.364,56750,936172,179135,82939213240.50.7277Disturbed belt fm4.7
PonokaAB123138,830109,521370,214292,05584228480.91.6411M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3
Prince AlbertSask.30________40M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1
RaymondAB57.5________150M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.5
Red DeerAB115121,20195,613323,203254,96973524860.81.4379M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.3
RedcliffAB60.51102869293823187230.10.0162M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.2
ReginaSask.61198315655289417212410.10.0163U. Cambrian Deadwood 2.1
Rocky Mountain HouseAB144185,107146,027493,619389,407112337971.12.1495M. Cambrian Basal Sands.4.8
SaskatoonSask.48________110M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.7
Slave LakeAB73.529,74923,46979,33262,5831816100.30.3214M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.1
Spruce GroveAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.6
St. AlbertAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.5
St. PaulAB55.25________141M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.7
StettlerAB78.340,32731,813107,53884,8352458270.30.5233M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.7
Stony PlainAB9066,11052,153176,293139,07440113560.50.8280M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.6
Swift CurrentSask.6510,578834428,20722,252642170.20.1179M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.4
TaberAB59.4________157M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.2
Three HillsAB80.645,39535,811121,05495,4972759310.40.5242M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.1
VarmanSask.43________93M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.6
VegrevilleAB648815695423,50618,543531810.20.1176M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2
VermilionAB55.8________143M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.8
VirdenMan.56________144M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.6
WainwleftAB648815695423,50618,543531810.20.1176M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2
WestlockAB73.629,97023,64379,91963,0471826150.30.3214M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.3
WetaskiwinAB110110,18386,921293,821231,79066922600.71.3359M. Cambrian Basal Sands.2.7
WeyburnSask.9270,07655,282186,870147,41842514370.50.8287U. Cambrian Deadwood 2.7
White CitySask.659916782326,44420,861602030.20.1178U. Cambrian Deadwood 2.15
WhitecourtAB140176,293139,074470,113370,863107036161.12.0479M. Cambrian Basal Sands.3.3
YorktonSask.46________102M. Cambrian Basal Sands.1.3
Table A2. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Upper Devonian Beaverhill Lake Group—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
Table A2. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Upper Devonian Beaverhill Lake Group—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
City LocationProvinceTemperature TEnergy 1Energy 2Energy 3Energy 4Households Households PowerPowerEnthalpy GainFormation GroupDepth
at C = 3993at C = 3150at C = 3993at C = 3150MinimumMaximumat C = 3993at C = 3150at C = 3993
at 30 kg/sat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/sat 80 g/snumbernumberat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/s
NameName°CGJ YearGJ YearGJ YearGJ Year @ 130 GJ/Year @ 130 GJ/YearMW el.MW el.kJ/kg km
AirdrieAB8044,073.1434,768.44117,528.492,715.84267.4495904.06430.359370.504239.58/Leduc1.9
BanffAB?________ Disturbed belt?
BarrheadAB59.2________156.5256U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.85
BattlefordSask.____________
BeaumontAB60________159.72Beaverhill l. Group1.7
BlackfaldsAB8555,091.4243,460.55146,910.5115,894.8334.31191130.08_0.63259.545U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.5
BonnyvilleAB__________Shallow basin
BrooksAB50________119.79Beaverhill l. Group1.7
CalgaryAB8044,073.1434,768.44117,528.492,715.84267.4495904.06430.359370.504239.58/Leduc3.4
CamroseAB60______0.11979_159.72Beaverhill l. Group1.6
CanmoreAB__________Disturbed belt_
CardstonAB6613,221.9410,430.5335,258.5127,814.7580.23486271.2193__183.678U. Devonian Beaverhill L.3.3
CarstairsAB75.634,377.0527,119.3891,672.1272,318.36208.6106705.1702__222.0108Leduc F.3.15
ChestermereAB7533,054.8526,076.3388,146.2769,536.88200.5872678.0483__219.615/Leduc3
ClaresholmAB70.3522,807.8517,992.6760,820.9347,980.45138.4051467.8533__201.0476U. Devonian Beaverhill L.3.35
CoaldaleAB47.5________109.8075U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.9
CochraneAB__________Disturbed belt_
Cold LakeAB__________Shallow basin_
Cold LakeAB__________Shallow basin_
Dawson CreekNE BC126145,441.4114,735.9387,843.630,5962.3882.58352983.4120.9104041.6632423.258U. Devonian Beaverhill L.3.6
DevonAB72.226,884.6121,208.7571,692.356,556.66163.1442551.4793__208.4346Cooking Lk F.1.9
DidsburyAB78.7541,318.5732,595.41110,182.886,921.1250.7339847.5603__234.5888Leduc F.3.15
Drayton ValleyAB86.859,05846,589.71157,488124,239.2358.38241211.446_0.67536266.7324U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.8
DrumhellerAB51.3________124.9809Leduc F.1.9
E.LloydminsterSask.____________
EdmontonAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.0322__199.65Beaverhill l. Group1.7
EdsonAB126145,441.4114,735.9387,843.630,5962.3882.58352983.4120.9104041.6632423.258Beaverhill l. Group3.6
EstevanSask.82.850,243.3839,636.02133,982.3105,696.1304.89251030.6330.3929110.57456250.7604U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.3
Fort LiardNWT136167,477.9132,120.1446,607.8352,320.21016.3083435.4451.0301941.9152463.188U. Devonian Beaverhill L.3.4
Fort NelsonNE BC8452,887.7641,722.13141,034111,259320.93941084.877_0.6048255.552U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.1
Fort Sask.AB60________159.72Beaverhill l. Group1.6
Fort St. JohnNE BC112114,590.290,397.94305,573.7241,061.2695.36882350.5670.7426981.3104367.356U. Devonian Beaverhill L.3.5
Grand CentreAB ________ Shallow basin_
Grande CacheAB ________ Disturbed belt_
Grande PrairieAB9066,109.7152,152.66176,292.5139,073.8401.17431356.0970.479160.756279.51/Leduc3.5
High RiverAB8044,073.1434,768.44117,528.492,715.84267.4495904.06430.359370.504239.58Beaverhill l. Group3.5
HintonAB160220,365.7173,842.2587,641.8463,579.21337.2484520.3221.317692.52559.02/Leduc3.4−5.4
HumboldtSask.____________
InnisfailAB68.7519,28215,211.1951,418.6640,563.18117.0092395.5282__194.6588U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.75
JasperAB__________Disturbed belt
KindersleySask.32.4________49.5132U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.2
LacombeAB130154,256121,689.5411,349.3324,505.4936.07343164.2250.958321.764439.23Beaverhill l. Group2.3
LangdonAB69.621,155.1116,688.8556,413.6244,503.6128.3758433.9509__198.0528Leduc F.2.9
LeducAB8044,073.1434,768.44117,528.492,715.84267.4495904.0643_0.504239.58Beaverhill l. Group1.9
LethbridgeAB60________159.72Beaverhill l. Group2.3
LloydminsterAB__________Shallow basin_
MalvilleSask.__________Shallow basin_
MartensvilleSask.__________Shallow basin_
Meadow LakeSask.__________Shallow basin_
Medicine HatAB50________119.79Beaverhill l. Group1.6
MelfordSask.____________
Moose JawSask.37.5________69.8775U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.5
MorinvilleAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.0322__199.65/Cooking Lk F. 1.6
North BattlefordSask.__________Shallow basin_
OldsAB76.2535,809.4228,249.3695,491.875,331.62217.3028734.5523__224.6063Leduc F.3.05
Peace RiverAB67.215,866.3312,516.6442,310.2133,377.796.28183325.4632__188.4696Leduc F.2.1
PenholdAB70.222,477.317,731.959,939.4747,285.08136.3993461.0728__200.4486U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.6
Pincher CreekAB_________ Disturbed belt_
PonokaAB8861,702.3948,675.82164,539.7129,802.2374.42941265.69_0.7056271.524U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.2
Prince AlbertSask.__________Shallow basin_
RaymondAB _ 111.804U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2
Red DeerAB9066,109.7152,152.66176,292.5139,073.8401.17431356.097_0.756279.51 /Leduc F. to SE2.6
RedcliffAB45.375________101.3224U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.65
ReginaSask.42________87.846U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.4
Rocky Mountain HouseAB108.5106,877.484,313.47285,006.3224,835.9648.56512192.3560.7007721.2222353.3805U. Devonian Beaverhill L.3.5
SaskatoonSask.__________Shallow basin_
Slave LakeAB54.4________137.3592U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.6
Spruce GroveAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.0322__199.65Beaverhill l. Group1.9
St. AlbertAB60________159.72/Cooking Lk F. 1.7
St. PaulAB ________−79.86Shallow basin_
StettlerAB55.5________141.7515Leduc F.1.85
Stony PlainAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.0322__199.65Beaverhill l. Group2
Swift CurrentSask.45.9________103.4187U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.7
TaberAB45.9________103.4187U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.7
Three HillsAB59.8________158.9214U. Devonian Beaverhill L.2.3
VarmanSask.__________Shallow basin_
VegrevilleAB35.2________60.6936U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.1
VermilionAB _________Shallow basin_
Virden Man.Man.__________Shallow basin_
WainwrightAB33.6________54.3048U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.05
WestlockAB51.2________124.5816U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.6
WetaskiwinAB8044,073.1434,768.44117,528.492,715.84267.4495904.0643__239.58Beaverhill l. Group2
WeyburnSask.66.313,883.0410,952.0637,021.4329,205.4984.2466284.7803__184.8759U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.95
White CitySask.42________87.846U. Devonian Beaverhill L.1.4
WhitecourtAB110110,182.886,921.1293,820.9231,789.6668.62382260.1610.718741.26359.37Swan H. - Slave Pt2.7
YorktonSask.__________Shallow basin_
Table A3. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Winterburn/Wabamun Groups—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
Table A3. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Winterburn/Wabamun Groups—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
City LocationProvinceTemperature TEnergy 1Energy 2Energy 3Energy 4Households Households PowerPowerEnthalpy GainFormation GroupDepth
at C = 3993at C = 3150at C = 3993at C = 3150MinimumMaximumat C = 3993at C = 3150at C = 3993top of Winterburn Group
at 30 kg/sat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/sat 80 kg/snumbernumberat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/s
NameName°CGJ YearGJ YearGJ YearGJ Year @ 130 GJ/Year @ 130 GJ/YearMW el.MW el.kJ/kg km
AirdrieAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65/Dolomite Nisku2.9
BanffAB__________Disturbed belt_
BarrheadAB44.8________99.0264Wabamum dolomite1.4
BattlefordSask.__________Shallow basin_
BeaumontAB50________119.79Wabamum dolomite1.3
BlackfaldsAB73.128,867.922,773.3376,981.0860,728.88175.1794592.16210.2767150.33012212.0283Dolomite Nisku2.15
BonnyvilleAB__________Shallow basin_
BrooksAB40________79.86Winterburn/Wabamun1.4
CalgaryAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65/Dolomite Nisku3
CamroseAB50________119.79/Dolomite Nisku1.3
CanmoreAB__________Shallow basin_
CardstonAB60________159.72top of Winterburn Group3
CarstairsAB68.418,510.7214,602.7449,361.9138,940.65112.3288379.7070.2204140.21168193.2612Dolimite Nisku2.85
ChestermereAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65/Dolomite Nisku2.8
ClaresholmAB60.91983.2911564.585288.7764172.21312.0352340.68290.1305710.02268163.3137top of Winterburn Group2.9
CoaldaleAB_________79.86top of Winterburn Group1.6
CochraneAB__________Shallow basin_
Cold LakeAB Shallow basin_
Cold LakeAB__________Shallow basin_
Dawson CreekNE BC131.25157,010.5123,862.6418,694.8330,300.2952.7893220.7290.9732941.7955444.2213top of Winterburn Group3.75
DevonAB57 147.741Wabamum dolomite1.5
DidsburyAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65Dolomite Nisku2.8
Drayton ValleyAB7226,443.8820,861.0670,517.0255,629.5160.4697542.43860.2635380.3024207.636Wabamum dolomite2.4
DrumhellerAB45.9________103.4187Dolomite Nisku1.7
E.LloydminsterSask.0_________Shallow basin_
EdmontonAB50________119.79/Dolomite Nisku1.2
EdsonAB112114,590.290,397.94305,573.7241,061.2695.36882350.5670.7426981.3104367.356top of Winterburn Group3.2
EstevanSask.77.438,343.6330,248.54102,249.780,662.78232.6811786.5360.3282250.43848229.1982top of Winterburn Group2.15
Fort LiardNWT132158,663.3125,166.4423,102.1333,777962.81833254.6320.9822781.8144447.216top of Winterburn Group3.3
Fort NelsonNE BC56______0.071874_143.748top of Winterburn Group1.4
Fort Sask.AB40________79.86/Dolomite Nisku1.1
Fort St. JohnNE BC112114,590.290,397.94305,573.7241,061.2695.36882350.5670.7426981.3104367.356top of Winterburn Group3.5
Grand CentreAB__________Shallow basin_
Grande CacheAB__________Disturbed belt_
Grande PrairieAB130154,256121,689.5411,349.3324,505.4936.07343164.2250.958321.764439.23/Limestone Nisku3.4
High RiverAB8044,073.1434,768.44117,528.492,715.84267.4495904.06430.359370.504239.58Winterburn/Wabamun3.3
HintonAB150198,329.1156,458528,877.6417,221.31203.5234068.291.19792.268519.09/Dolomite Nisku3.7−5.2
HumboldtSask.0_________Shallow basin_
InnisfailAB__________Shallow basin_
JasperAB_ Disturbed belt_
KindersleySask.__________Shallow basin_
LacombeAB8044,073.1434,768.44117,528.492,715.84267.4495904.06430.359370.504239.58/Dolomite Nisku2
LangdonAB62.45288.7764172.21314,103.411,125.932.09394108.48770.148540.06048169.3032Dolomite Nisku2.6
LeducAB60______0.11979_159.72Wabamum dolomite1.5
LethbridgeAB50________119.79Winterburn/Wabamun1.9
LloydminsterAB__________Shallow basin_
MartensvilleSask.__________Shallow basin_
Meadow LakeSask.__________Shallow basin_
Medicine HatSask.40_________Winterburn/Wabamun1.3
MelfordAB__________Shallow basin_
MelvilleSask.__________Shallow basin_
Moose JawSask.32.5________49.9125top of Winterburn Group1.3
MorinvilleAB50________119.79Wabamum dolomite1.2
North BattlefordSask.__________Shallow basin_
OldsAB67.516,527.4313,038.1744,073.1434,768.44100.2936339.02410.2096330.189189.6675Dolomite Nisku2.7
Peace RiverAB56 143.748top of Winterburn Group1.75
PenholdAB62.14627.6793650.68612,340.489735.16328.082294.926760.1449460.05292168.1053top of Winterburn Group2.3
Pincher CreekAB__________Disturbed belt_
PonokaAB7226,443.8820,861.0670,517.0255,629.5160.4697542.43860.2635380.3024207.636Winterburn/Dolomite Nisku1.8
Prince AlbertSask.__________Shallow basin_
RaymondAB42_________top of Winterburn Group1.75
Red DeerAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65/Dolomite Nisku2.2
RedcliffAB34.375 57.39938top of Winterburn Group1.25
ReginaSask.39________75.867top of Winterburn Group1.3
Rocky Mountain HouseAB9372,720.6857,367.93193,921.8152,981.1441.29171491.7060.5150970.8316291.489Wabamum dolomite3.1
SaskatoonSask.0_________Shallow basin_
Slave LakeAB37.4________69.4782Dolomite Nisku1.1
Spruce GroveAB60______0.11979_159.72Wabamum dolomite1.6
St. AlbertAB50________119.79Wabamum dolomite1.3
St. PaulAB__________Shallow basin_
StettlerAB43.5_ 93.8355top of Winterburn Group1.5
Stony PlainAB60______0.11979_159.72Wabamum dolomite1.5
Swift CurrentSask.40.5________81.8565top of Winterburn Group1.5
TaberAB37.8________71.0754top of Winterburn Group1.4
Three HillsAB50.7________122.5851Dolimite Nisku1.95
VegrevilleAB__________Shallow basin_
VermilionAB0_________Shallow basin_
Virden Man.Man.0_________Shallow basin_
WainwrightAB0_________Shallow basin_
WarmanSask.0_________Shallow basin_
WestlockAB38.4________73.4712Wabamum dolomite1.2
WetaskiwinAB60______0.11979_159.72/Dolomite Nisku1.6
WeyburnSask.57.8______0.093436_150.9354top of Winterburn Group1.7
White CitySask.39________75.867top of Winterburn Group1.3
WhitecourtAB9066,109.7152,152.66176,292.5139,073.8401.17431356.0970.479160.756279.51Winterburn/Wabamun2.3
YorktonSask.__________Shallow basin_
Table A4. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Mississippian Groups-—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
Table A4. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Mississippian Groups-—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
City LocationProvinceTemperature TEnergy 1Energy 2Energy 3Energy 4Households Households PowerPowerEnthalpy GainFormation GroupDepth
at C = 3993at C = 3150at C = 3993at C = 3150MinimumMaximumat C = 3993 at C = 3150at C = 3993top of Winterburn Group
at 30 kg/sat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/sat 80 kg/snumbernumberat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/s
NameName°CGJ YearGJ YearGJ YearGJ Year @ 130 GJ/Year @ 130 GJ/YearMW el.MW el.kJ/kg km
AirdrieAB60______0.11979 159.72/Rundle dolstone2.3
BanffAB__________Disturbed belt_
BarrheadAB35.2______ 60.6936Mississippian1.1
BattlefordSask.__________shallow basin_
BeaumontAB40________79.86Mississippian1.2
BlackfaldsAB59.5______0.113801−0.0126157.7235Banff l.1.75
BonnyvilleAB__________shallow basin_
BrooksAB30________39.93/Rundle/Banff carbonates1.1
CalgaryAB60______0.11979_159.72/Rundle/Charles carbonates2.4
CamroseAB40________79.86Mississippian1.1
CanmoreAB__________Disturbed belt_
CardstonAB50______ 119.79Banf/Rundle l.2.5
CarstairsAB55.2______0.062291 140.5536Banf l./Rundle d.2.3
ChestermereAB50________119.79/Rundle dolstone2.1
ClaresholmAB50.4______ 121.3872Banf/Rundle l.2.4
CoaldaleAB30________39.93Rundle l.1.25
CochraneAB__________Disturbed belt_
Cold LakeAB__________shallow basin_
Cold LakeAB__________shallow basin_
Dawson CreekNE BC9168,313.3653,891.0818,2169143,709.6414.54681401.30.4911390.7812283.503Mississippian2.6
DevonAB51.3________124.9809Mississippian1.35
DidsburyAB57.5______0.089842_149.7375Banff l.2.3
Drayton ValleyAB60______0.11979 159.72Banff l.2
DrumhellerAB37.8______ 71.0754Mississippian1.4
E.LloydminsterSask.__________shallow basin_
EdmontonAB40________79.86Mississippian1.2
EdsonAB96.2579,882.5663,017.8213,020.2168,047.5484.75231638.6170.5540290.9135304.4663Rundle l.2.75
EstevanSask.57.6−5288.78_______150.1368Mississippian1.6
Fort Liard NWTNWT40_________Mississippian1
Fort NelsonNE BC__________shallow basin_
Fort Sask.AB40________79.86Mississippian1.1
Fort St. JohnNE BC648814.6276953.68823,505.6718,543.1753.48991180.81290.1677060.1008175.692Mississippian2
Grand CentreAB__________shallow basin_
Grande CacheAB_______ Disturbed belt_
Grande PrairieAB9066,109.7152,152.66176,292.5139,073.8401.17431356.0970.479160.756279.51/Rundle/Banff carbonates1.9
High RiverAB60______0.11979_159.72/Rundle/Banff carbonates2.4
HintonAB135165,274.3130,381.7440,731.4347,684.41002.9363390.2411.0182151.89459.195/Turney Valley/Elkton3−4.5
HumboldtSask.__________shallow basin_
InnisfailAB50 119.79Banff l.2
JasperAB__________Disturbed belt_
KindersleySask.__________shallow basin_
LacombeAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65Mississippian1.7
LangdonAB46________103.818Rundle d.2
LeducAB55________139.755Mississippian1.3
LethbridgeAB35________59.895Runde limestone1.4
LloydminsterAB__________shallow basin_
MartensvilleSask.__________shallow basin_
Meadow LakeSask.__________shallow basin_
Medicine HatSask.30________39.93/Rundle/Banff carbonates_
MelfordAB__________shallow basin_
MelvilleSask.__________shallow basin_
Moose JawSask.30−66,109.7_______39.93Mississippian1.2
MorinvilleAB40________79.86Mississippian1.1
North BattlefordSask.__________shallow basin_
OldsAB57.5______0.089842_149.7375Mississippian2.3
Peace RiverAB_________ shallow basin_
PenholdAB50.4________121.3872Banf l.1.8
Pincher CreekAB_________ Disturbed belt_
PonokaAB648814.6276953.68823,505.6718,543.1753.48991180.81290.1677060.1008175.692Mississippian1.6
Prince AlbertSask.__________shallow basin_
RaymondAB31.2________44.7216Rundle l.1.3
Red DeerAB60______0.11979_159.72/Banff limestone1.8
RedcliffAB__________shallow basin_
ReginaSask.30−66109.7_______39.93Mississippian1
Rocky Mountain HouseAB8146,276.7936,506.86123,404.897,351.63280.822949.26760.3713490.5292243.573Rundle l/Banff l.2.7
SaskatoonSask.__________shallow basin_
Slave LakeAB__________shallow basin_
Spruce GroveAB45________99.825Mississippian1.3
St. AlbertAB45________99.825Mississippian1.2
St. PaulAB__________shallow basin_
StettlerAB37.7________70.6761Mississippian1.3
Stony PlainAB50________119.79Mississippian1.4
Swift CurrentSask.31.05−63,795.9_______44.12265Mississippian1.15
TaberAB27________27.951Rundle l.1
Three Hills+M8A6:M41AB41.6______ 86.2488Rundle d.1.6
VegrevilleSask.__________shallow basin_
VermilionAB_______ shallow basin_
Virden Man.Man.__________shallow basin_
WainwrightAB__________shallow basin_
WarmanSask.__________shallow basin_
WestlockAB__________shallow basin_
WetaskiwinAB60______0.11979_159.72Mississippian1.4
WeyburnSask.44.2−34,817.8_______96.6306Mississippian1.3
White CitySask.30−66,109.7_______39.93Mississippian1
WhitecourtAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65/Banff limestone1.8
YorktonSask.__________shallow basin_
Table A5. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Lower Cretaceous—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
Table A5. WCSB >3 k populations centers geothermal prospects summary—Lower Cretaceous—Energy, Enthalpy, Power, Number of direct deep geothermal energy heated households feasible.
City LocationProvinceTemperature TEnergy 1Energy 2Energy 3Energy 4Households Households PowerPowerEnthalpy GainFormation GroupDepth
at C = 3993at C = 3150at C = 3993at C = 3150MinimumMaximumat C = 3993at C = 3150at C = 3993Lower Cretaceous
at 30 kg/sat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/sat 80 kg/snumbernumberat 30 kg/sat 80 kg/s
NameName°CGJ YearGJ YearGJ YearGJ Year @ 130 GJ/Year @ 130 GJ/YearMW el.MW el.kJ/kg km
AirdrieAB45________99.825Lower Mannville Group2.3
BanffAB__________Disturbed belt
BarrheadAB38.4________73.4712Lower Mannville Group1.2
BattlefordSask.__________shallow basin_
BeaumontAB30________39.93Lower Mannville Group1.2
BlackfaldsAB636610.9715215.26617,629.2513,907.3840.11743135.60970.1557270.0756171.699Lower Mannville Group1.75
BonnyvilleAB__________shallow basin_
BrooksAB20________0Lower Mannville Group1.1
CalgaryAB50________119.79Lower Mannville Group2.4
CamroseAB30________39.93Lower Mannville Group1.1
CanmoreAB__________Disturbed belt_
CardstonAB__________Disturbed belt_
CarstairsAB_________149.7375Lower Mannville Group2.3
ChestermereAB40________79.86Lower Mannville Group2.1
ClaresholmAB_________121.3872Lower Mannville Group2.4
CoaldaleAB32.5________49.9125Lower Mannville Group1.3
CochraneAB__________Disturbed belt_
Cold LakeAB__________shallow basin_
Cold LakeAB__________shallow basin_
Dawson CreekNE BC56________143.748Lower Mannville Group1.6
DevonAB51.8________126.9774Lower Mannville Group1.4
DidsburyAB57.5 0.089842 149.7375Lower Mannville Group2.3
Drayton ValleyAB68.2518,180.1714,341.9848,480.4538,245.28110.3229372.92650.2186170.2079192.6623Lower Mannville Group1.95
DrumhellerAB37.8________71.0754Lower Mannville Group1.4
E.LloydminsterSask.__________shallow basin_
EdmontonAB35________59.895Lower Mannville Group1.2
EdsonAB9168,313.3653,891.08182,169143,709.6414.54681401.30.4911390.7812283.503Lower Mannville Group2.6
EstevanSask.46.8________107.0124shallow basin1.3
Fort Liard NWTNWT40_________shallow basin1
Fort NelsonNE BC__________shallow basin_
Fort Sask.AB30________39.93Lower Mannville Group1.1
Fort St. JohnNE BC43.2________92.6376Lower Mannville Group1.35
Grand CentreAB__________shallow_
Grande CacheAB__________Disturbed belt_
Grande PrairieAB7022,036.5717,384.2258,764.1846,357.92133.7248452.03220.239580.252199.65Lower Mannville/Cadominium1.9
High RiverAB50________119.79Lower Mannville Group2.4
HintonAB120132,219.4104,305.3352,585.1278,147.5802.34862712.1930.838531.512399.3Lower Mannville/Cadominium4
HumboldtSask.__________shallow basin_
InnisfailAB50________119.79Lower Mannville Group2
JasperAB ________ Disturbed belt_
KindersleySask.__________shallow basin_
LacombeAB60________159.72Lower Mannville Group1.7
LangdonAB43.7 94.6341Lower Mannville Group1.9
LeducAB45________99.825Lower Mannville Group1.3
LethbridgeAB30________39.93Lower Mannville/Cadominium1.4
LloydminsterAB__________shallow basin0
MalvilleSask.__________shallow basin_
MartensvilleSask.__________shallow basin_
Meadow LakeSask.__________shallow basin_
Medicine HatAB__________shallow basin_
MelfordSask.__________shallow basin_
Moose JawSask.25________19.965shallow basin1
MorinvilleAB30________39.93Lower Mannville Group1.1
North BattlefordSask.__________shallow basin_
OldsAB57.5________149.7375Lower Mannville Group2.3
Peace RiverAB__________shallow basin
PenholdAB_________140.1543Lower Mannville Group1.9
Pincher CreekAB__________Disturbed belt_
PonokaAB65.612,340.489735.16332,907.9425,960.4474.88587253.1380.1868720.14112182.0808Lower Mannville Group1.6
Prince AlbertSask.__________shallow basin_
RaymondAB_________49.5132Lower Mannville Group1.35
Red DeerAB50________119.79Lower Mannville Group1.8
RedcliffAB _________shallow basin_
ReginaSask.__________shallow basin_
Rocky Mountain HouseAB7839,665.8231,291.6105,775.583,444.26240.7046813.65790.3354120.4536231.594Lower Mannville Group2.6
SaskatoonSask.__________shallow basin_
Slave LakeAB__________shallow basin_
Spruce GroveAB40________79.86Lower Mannville Group1.3
St. AlbertAB40________79.86Lower Mannville Group1.2
St. PaulAB__________shallow basin_
StettlerAB40.6________82.2558Lower Mannville Group1.4
Stony PlainAB40________79.86Lower Mannville Group1.4
Swift CurrentSask.27________27.951shallow basin1
TaberAB__________shallow_
Three HillsAB_________96.6306Lower Mannville Group1.7
VarmanSask.__________shallow basin_
VegrevilleAB__________shallow basin_
VermilionMan.__________shallow_
Virden Man.AB__________shallow basin_
WainwrightSask.__________shallow basin_
WestlockAB32________47.916Lower Mannville Group1
WetaskiwinAB50________119.79Lower Mannville Group1.4
WeyburnSask.30.6________42.3258shallow basin0.9
White CitySask.__________shallow basin_
WhitecourtAB6511,018.288692.1129,382.0923,178.9666.86238226.01610.1796850.126179.685Lower Mannville Group1.8
YorktonSask.__________shallow basin_

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Energies 14 00706 g001
Figure 1. Map of Canada showing the study area (rectangle). Provinces and territories that are considered in the study are indicated along with the outline of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). BC = British Columbia, NWT = Northwest Territories, Sask. = Saskatchewan, Man. = Manitoba. The red line depicts the western margin of the WCSB which is defined by the deformation front of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The black line shows the eastern edge of our study defined by 1 km sedimentary thickness.
Figure 1. Map of Canada showing the study area (rectangle). Provinces and territories that are considered in the study are indicated along with the outline of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin (WCSB). BC = British Columbia, NWT = Northwest Territories, Sask. = Saskatchewan, Man. = Manitoba. The red line depicts the western margin of the WCSB which is defined by the deformation front of the Canadian Rocky Mountains. The black line shows the eastern edge of our study defined by 1 km sedimentary thickness.
Energies 14 00706 g001
Energies 14 00706 g002
Figure 2. Location map of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) with provincial boundaries and locations of municipalities with populations >3k. The red line depicts the western margin of the WCSB defined by the deformation front of the Canadian Rocky Mountains.
Figure 2. Location map of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB) with provincial boundaries and locations of municipalities with populations >3k. The red line depicts the western margin of the WCSB defined by the deformation front of the Canadian Rocky Mountains.
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Energies 14 00706 g003
Figure 3. Geological cross-section through the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. The main geological formations are shown. Depth to drill to 2 km 60–70 °C below the surface and 3 km 90–100 °C is indicated.
Figure 3. Geological cross-section through the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. The main geological formations are shown. Depth to drill to 2 km 60–70 °C below the surface and 3 km 90–100 °C is indicated.
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Figure 4. Study area against the map of heat flow Q of Canada (modified from [10]).
Figure 4. Study area against the map of heat flow Q of Canada (modified from [10]).
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Figure 5. The communities’ studies here shown against the map of average geothermal gradient for the WCSB with sediment thickness >1000 m. The red line is the western boundary of the WCSB marked by the Rocky Mountains disturbed belt modified from [16]. The Hunt well near Fort McMurray is the site of first heat flow determined below the WCSB, in an interval of the 0.5–2.4 km in Precambrian granites [33].
Figure 5. The communities’ studies here shown against the map of average geothermal gradient for the WCSB with sediment thickness >1000 m. The red line is the western boundary of the WCSB marked by the Rocky Mountains disturbed belt modified from [16]. The Hunt well near Fort McMurray is the site of first heat flow determined below the WCSB, in an interval of the 0.5–2.4 km in Precambrian granites [33].
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Figure 6. WCSB municipalities >3k population plotted against the calculated temperature [°C] pattern at the base of the Phanerozoic = top of Precambrian basement. Red line depicts western reach of the WCSB which is at the Rocky Mountains deformation front.
Figure 6. WCSB municipalities >3k population plotted against the calculated temperature [°C] pattern at the base of the Phanerozoic = top of Precambrian basement. Red line depicts western reach of the WCSB which is at the Rocky Mountains deformation front.
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Figure 7. WCSB municipalities with >3 k population plotted against the maps of temperature at various geological surfaces [15]; (a) The base of Upper Devonian Beaverhill Lake Group; (b) The top of the Upper Devonian Winterburn Group; (c) The top of Mississippian formations; (d) at the sub-Mannville unconformity. Note: The red line depicts western margin of the undeformed WCSB.
Figure 7. WCSB municipalities with >3 k population plotted against the maps of temperature at various geological surfaces [15]; (a) The base of Upper Devonian Beaverhill Lake Group; (b) The top of the Upper Devonian Winterburn Group; (c) The top of Mississippian formations; (d) at the sub-Mannville unconformity. Note: The red line depicts western margin of the undeformed WCSB.
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Figure 8. WCSB temperature records from (APP) Annual Pool Pressure test temperature data from shut-in wells. Linear approximation is: T (°C) = 0.031z + 5.58. Correlation coefficient is R = 0.96.
Figure 8. WCSB temperature records from (APP) Annual Pool Pressure test temperature data from shut-in wells. Linear approximation is: T (°C) = 0.031z + 5.58. Correlation coefficient is R = 0.96.
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Table 1. Potential geothermal target formations in the WCSB (modified from [15]).
Table 1. Potential geothermal target formations in the WCSB (modified from [15]).
PeriodGroupFormationLithology
CretaceousMannville sandstone
CretaceousMannvilleCadominsandst./congl.
MississippianRundle carbonates
Mississippian-Charlescarbonates
Mississippian-Banfflimestone
DevonianWabamunWabamundolomite
DevonianWinterburnNiskucarbonates
DevonianWoodbendGrosmontdolomite
DevonianWoodbendLeducdolomite
DevonianWoodbendCooking Lakecarbonates
DevonianBeaverhill Slave Pointcarbonates
DevonianBeaverhill Swan Hillscarbonates
DevonianElk PointPine Pointdolostone
Devonian-Granite Wash sandstone
CambrianLynxDeadwood Fm.sandstone
Cambrian-Basal Sandstonesandstone
Table 2. Assumed parameters.
Table 2. Assumed parameters.
ParameterRangeUnit
Production temperature of geothermal fluid70–160°C
Backflow temperature 50–60°C
Specific heat capacity 3150–3993J/kg °C
Flow rate30–80kg/s
Conversion MWthermal to MWelectrical factor 18–12%
1 common for the Organic Rankin cycle power plants [5].
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Majorowicz, J.; Grasby, S.E. Deep Geothermal Heating Potential for the Communities of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. Energies 2021, 14, 706. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030706

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Majorowicz J, Grasby SE. Deep Geothermal Heating Potential for the Communities of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. Energies. 2021; 14(3):706. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030706

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Majorowicz, Jacek, and Stephen E. Grasby. 2021. "Deep Geothermal Heating Potential for the Communities of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin" Energies 14, no. 3: 706. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030706

APA Style

Majorowicz, J., & Grasby, S. E. (2021). Deep Geothermal Heating Potential for the Communities of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. Energies, 14(3), 706. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030706

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